Spanish History: Truce, Decrees, Armada, and Inquisition
Twelve Years’ Truce (1609)
Signed in 1609 between Philip III of Spain and the Dutch Republic (United Provinces), this truce marked a pause in the Eighty Years’ War, where the Dutch fought for independence from Spain. Philip II had previously abdicated rule over the Low Countries to his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband, Archduke Albert, but this did not resolve the conflict.
Reasons leading to the truce included:
- Religious struggles
- Economic and financial difficulties
- War fatigue on both sides
The truce temporarily halted military confrontations but did not end the economic war. The Spanish monarchy continued blockading trade with Flanders, interfering with Mediterranean traffic, and harassing Dutch colonies. The truce was not renewed in 1621, and the Netherlands ultimately achieved formal independence during the reign of Philip IV.
Nueva Planta Decrees
Promulgated by Philip V following the War of Spanish Succession, these decrees aimed to impose the Castilian political and administrative model on the territories of the former Crown of Aragon, unifying Spain under a centralized structure. They were issued based on the right of conquest or, in the case of Catalonia, as part of the peace settlement.
- 1707: Applied to Valencia and Aragon.
- 1715: Applied to Mallorca.
- 1716: Applied to Catalonia.
Key effects included:
- Abolition of traditional regional institutions like the Cortes (parliaments), Diputaciones (governing councils, e.g., the Generalitat of Catalonia), and specific regional laws (fueros), except in Navarre and the Basque Country which had supported Philip V.
- Establishment of the Captain General as the highest royal authority in each former realm.
- Imposition of a single, unified legal and administrative system across most of Spain, moving towards a unitary monarchy.
- Catalonia, however, retained its private civil law.
Marqués de la Ensenada
Zenón de Somodevilla y Bengoechea, Marqués de la Ensenada, was an influential minister under King Fernando VI of Spain (reigned 1746-1759). He attempted a major tax reform in Castile known as the Única Contribución (Single Contribution). This reform was inspired by the relatively successful Catastro (cadastre or land register tax) implemented in Catalonia after the Nueva Planta Decrees.
The goal was to replace the complex web of existing taxes levied differently in each province with a single, unified tax based on wealth, primarily land ownership. A massive census and property survey (Catastro de Ensenada) was undertaken to determine wealth distribution. However, the reform faced strong opposition from the privileged estates (nobility and clergy) who stood to lose their tax exemptions, and it was ultimately never fully implemented.
The Spanish Armada (1588)
Often called the ‘Invincible Armada’, this was a large fleet assembled by King Philip II of Spain for the invasion of England in 1588. Tensions were high due to Queen Elizabeth I’s opposition to Spanish interests, her support for the Dutch rebels in Flanders, and English privateering (piracy) against Spanish shipping in the Atlantic, often financed by the Crown.
Following a proposal from Admiral Álvaro de Bazán (who died before the expedition sailed), the King organized the fleet. It consisted of approximately 130 ships, carrying around 8,000 sailors and 20,000 soldiers. After several engagements in the English Channel, the Armada was ultimately defeated and scattered by a combination of English naval tactics, unfavorable weather (‘Protestant Wind’), and strategic errors. It failed to achieve its objective of overthrowing Elizabeth I and ending English support for the Dutch Revolt.
Reasons for the defeat included:
- Philip II’s miscalculation of the invasion’s feasibility.
- Lack of coordination between the Armada and Spanish forces in Flanders.
- Superior English naval gunnery and maneuverability.
- Severe storms during the return voyage around Scotland and Ireland.
The defeat marked a significant setback for Spain and contributed to the rise of English naval power in the Atlantic.
Council of Trent (1545-1563)
Convened by the Pope in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Council of Trent was a cornerstone of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Meeting in Trent (Northern Italy) over three periods between 1545 and 1563, its primary goals were to address doctrinal challenges posed by Protestants and to reform the internal discipline and administration of the Catholic Church.
While reconciliation with Protestants was not achieved, the Council:
- Reaffirmed and clearly defined core Catholic doctrines (e.g., justification, sacraments, the Eucharist, papal authority).
- Mandated reforms, including the establishment of seminaries for better priest training.
- Standardized the Mass (Tridentine Mass).
- Commissioned the creation of a universal Catechism to educate the faithful.
The Society of Jesus (Jesuits), founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540, played a significant role in defending Catholicism and implementing the Council’s decrees with papal support.
The Spanish Inquisition
While inquisitions existed under papal authority in the Middle Ages to combat heresy, the Spanish Inquisition was a distinct institution established in Castile in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, with authorization from Pope Sixtus IV (who issued a papal bull allowing the monarchs to appoint inquisitors).
Its primary initial purpose was to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts (conversos), particularly those from Judaism, who were suspected of secretly practicing their former religion (‘false converts’). Over time, its scope expanded to include Protestants, blasphemers, bigamists, and those accused of witchcraft or political offenses. It was known for its secretive procedures and use of torture, although its methods were comparable to secular courts of the era.
The Spanish Inquisition was temporarily abolished during the Napoleonic occupation and by the Cortes of Cádiz, but was restored by Fernando VII. It was finally suppressed definitively in 1834.