Spanish Language and Literature: A Deep Dive

Punctuation and Grammar

The Comma

The comma creates a brief pause and separates different elements within a sentence. It’s used to:

• Separate items in a list: On his desk were books, folders, papers, and much more.
• Offset clarifying information: Anna, who knew her well, told me not to worry.
• Isolate vocatives: Please, sir, let me pass.

The Comma and Semicolon

The comma is also used:

• To mark the omission of a verb: I study in this room; my sister, in the third.
• After an adverbial clause that precedes the main clause: When you call, unfasten the van door immediately.
• With expressions like as is, or so, however, in effect, therefore…

The semicolon indicates a longer pause than a comma, but shorter than a period. It’s used to:

• Separate complex list items containing commas: Everyone was happy: Alicia, because she had seen something new; Eve, because she had met old friends; Quique, because he was able to speak to Irene.
• Separate related independent clauses: When you leave school, I’ll have a snack; then, I’ll go to the library for a while; later, I’ll walk for a bit.
• Before conjunctions like but, nevertheless, however in extended phrases: It was snowing, very cold, and we were disoriented; but we managed to reach our destination.

The Colon

The colon is used:

• Before explanatory lists: This is what he had in his wallet: two books, gloves…
• Before a summary or conclusion of a list: Soccer, swimming, basketball: I like all sports.
• To introduce a quotation: Julia then said: “The last time I was sure he would admit me, I had prepared very well.”
• Before a consequence or summary: The actors are ready, the lights go out: the work begins.

Ellipsis, Quotes, and Parentheses

Ellipses are used:

• To leave a sentence incomplete.
• To omit words in a quotation.
• To interrupt an unnecessary sentence.

Quotes highlight words, expressions used ironically, foreign terms, or misspellings. They also indicate verbatim quotations.

Parentheses enclose asides and phrases not directly linked to the main paragraph.

Dash and Hyphen

The dash is used:

• In dialogues:
  —Where have you been?
  —There, walking.
• To insert explanations: “Good morning,” said the waiter. “What will they eat?”
• To delineate paragraphs or explanations: The Romantic poets—a literary movement of the nineteenth century—sometimes used the landscape…

The hyphen is used:

• To separate syllables at the end of a line.
• In compound words: Spanish-German, theoretical-practical
• Between dates or place names: 1987-1934, the Barcelona-Paris train

The Generation of ’98 and the Spanish Novel

Historical and Cultural Context

The period between 1890 and 1914, known as the crisis of the century, saw significant social and cultural changes worldwide, including technological advancements (automobiles, electricity, cinema, radio), industrial and urban growth, and a crisis of positivism and rationalism. In Spain, the Disaster of ’98 (loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) led to widespread discontent and calls for regeneration.

The Generation of ’98

This group of Spanish writers, including Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, Azorín, Antonio Machado, and Ramón del Valle-Inclán, emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Concerned with the state of Spain and philosophical questions, they often used the novel to explore personal concerns and ideas.

Key Figures of the Generation of ’98

Miguel de Unamuno: Known for exploring themes of life, death, faith, and the essence of Spain in essays, poetry, theater, and novels like Peace in War, Love and Pedagogy, Niebla, and San Manuel Bueno, Martyr.

Pío Baroja: A pessimistic and skeptical writer whose notable works include Zalacaín Adventurer, The Search, and The Tree of Science.

Azorín (José Martínez Ruiz): Known for his concise and clear style, he wrote novels like Will and Confessions of a Little Philosopher, but excelled in essays describing Spanish landscapes and interpreting classic literature.

Antonio Machado: A renowned poet whose work evolved from modernist introspection (Solitudes, Galleries and Other Poems) to reflections on Spain and social criticism (Campos de Castilla) and concise philosophical poems (New Songs).

Romance Languages in Spain

Castilian Spanish

Castilian Spanish, the official language of Spain, coexists with Catalan, Galician, and Basque. Originating in northern Spain, Castilian spread southward and became standardized with the publication of the first grammar and dictionary by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish is also spoken across Latin America, with variations, and as Judeo-Spanish in Sephardic communities.

Catalan

A Romance language originating in Catalonia, Catalan spread throughout the Mediterranean. Its literature flourished in the 14th century, declined, and then saw a revival in the 19th century. Spoken by over 7 million people, Catalan has two main varieties: Western and Eastern Catalan.

Galician

Evolving from Galician-Portuguese, Galician became a distinct language in the 14th century. Its literary history includes medieval works like the Cantigas de Santa Maria and a resurgence in the 19th century with authors like Rosalía de Castro and Emilio Castelao.

Basque

Unique as a pre-Roman language unrelated to Latin, Basque has a rich oral tradition. Its origins are debated, with possible links to North African or Caucasian languages. Modern Basque literature emerged after the first written texts appeared in the 16th century.

Multilingualism in Spain

Over 40% of Spain’s population lives in bilingual regions. While bilingualism implies equal fluency in two languages, diglossia describes the more common situation where one language is favored over another depending on context.