Spanish Liberal Revolution and the Constitution of 1812
The Liberal Revolution and the Constitution of 1812
Simultaneously with the War of Independence, a liberal revolution unfolded, aiming to dismantle the foundations of the Ancien Régime in Spain. This revolution began with the establishment of the Cortes of Cadiz.
1. Cortes of Cadiz (1808-1814)
In the absence of Fernando VII, provincial boards established the Supreme Central Junta to coordinate efforts against French occupation. This Junta called for a national parliament, the Cortes of Cadiz. Elections were held for all men over 25, resulting in a diverse assembly. Two main groups emerged: Liberals advocating for modernization and the Ancien Régime’s preservation. United by their patriotism against Napoleon, the Cortes ultimately embraced liberalism, asserting national sovereignty, the division of powers, and promising a constitution.
2. Socio-Economic Changes
The Cortes initiated the dismantling of the manorial system and feudalism. Privileges of the aristocracy and clergy were abolished, paving the way for a class system based on wealth rather than birth. Abolition of fiefs and manorial rights followed, alongside the Inquisition. Private property and capitalism were proclaimed, and freedom of work, commerce, and industry were legalized.
3. Constitution of 1812
Inspired by the French and American revolutions, Spain’s first constitution exemplified revolutionary liberalism. Its core tenets included national sovereignty (power residing in the nation), a liberal parliamentary monarchy, the division of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial), a unicameral Cortes, a confessional state with Catholicism as the official religion, and a national militia.
Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
a) The Absolute Six-Year Period (1814-1820)
Upon Fernando VII’s return in 1814, absolutists issued the Manifesto of the Persians, demanding the repeal of liberal reforms and the restoration of the Ancien Régime. The king obliged, abolishing the Constitution of Cadiz and its associated legislation. This restoration of absolute monarchy exacerbated the economic crisis, worsened social misery, and led to the bankruptcy of the royal treasury. The absolutist government, composed of the king’s confidants, proved inept at public administration. The manorial system and Inquisition were reinstated, and liberals faced repression, often resorting to secret societies to conspire against the king. Pronouncements, or armed insurrections against the government, became a means of challenging absolutism.
b) The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Riego’s Pronouncement and the Return to Liberalism
In 1820, Rafael del Riego led a successful liberal pronouncement, forcing Fernando VII to restore the Constitution of Cadiz, constitutional monarchy, and the socio-economic reforms of the Cortes. The Inquisition was abolished, and feudal rights were eliminated. An attempt to auction Church property to replenish the treasury proved unsuccessful.
Division within Liberalism
Liberals fractured into two groups: Moderates, favoring gradual change and compromise with privileged sectors, and Exaltados, advocating for a more radical revolution and reduced royal power. This division weakened the liberal movement against absolutist opposition.
Absolutist Opposition
Absolutists, comprising nobles, clergy, generals, and some peasants, staunchly opposed liberalism and supported Fernando VII. They organized uprisings and formed guerilla groups.
c) Latin American Independence (1808-1824)
Causes
The Peninsular War triggered the process of Latin American independence. Creole discontent stemmed from their economic power being unmatched by political influence. Public offices were reserved for Peninsulares, prompting Creoles to expel Spanish authorities. Trade restrictions imposed by Spanish monopolies fueled merchants’ desire for open trade. The war in Spain created a power vacuum in America, allowing American patriots to replace Spanish authorities. Enlightenment ideals and the American and French revolutions fostered a sense of national consciousness among Creoles, further fueling their demands for independence.