Spanish Liberalism and Absolutism (1808-1833): From Cádiz to the Carlist Wars
The Cortes of Cádiz
Formation of the Cortes
At the start of the war, provincial councils sent representatives to form a central coordinating body, the Supreme Central Junta (1808). This Junta recognized Ferdinand VII as king and assumed state authority. In 1809, facing difficulties directing the war, the Junta convened a Parliament. Due to the French occupation, Catalonia sent twenty deputies, led by Antoni Campmany.
In 1810, the Parliament opened and approved the principle of national sovereignty, recognizing that power resides in the citizens and is expressed through the Cortes.
The Constitution of 1812
This broad liberal declaration enshrined rights such as freedom of the press, equality before the law, and property rights. It envisioned a modern society with rights and duties for all citizens. The nation was defined as all citizens of both hemispheres.
The Constitution established a limited monarchy based on the separation of powers: the Cortes (legislative), the Monarch (executive, limited by the Cortes), and the courts (judicial). It recognized Catholicism, reformed the Treasury, and implemented free public primary education.
The Work of Cádiz
Guided by the French Constitution of 1791, but more progressive, it accepted the principle of universal (male) suffrage. Decrees were enacted to dismantle the Old Regime and establish a liberal state. The wartime context allowed for a more advanced legislative framework. The Constitution had limited practical effect due to the war and the return of absolutism with Ferdinand VII.
Absolutism and Liberalism (1814-1833)
The 1813 Treaty of Valençay secured the French withdrawal and recognized Ferdinand VII as Spain’s legitimate monarch. This created conflict, as Ferdinand had left as an absolute monarch but was to return as a constitutional one. His reign (1814-1833) had three stages: absolutist rule (1814-1820), the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823), and the Ominous Decade (1823-1833). The years 1820, 1830, and 1848 saw liberal and nationalist bourgeois revolutions across Europe.
The Return to Absolutism (1814-1820)
Liberals, lacking popular support, doubted the king’s acceptance of the new situation. Ferdinand, fearing confrontation, initially feigned acceptance. However, the absolutist Manifesto of the Persians, signed by Bernardo Mozo de Rosales and supported by the nobility and clergy, urged the king to restore the Old Regime. In an 1814 coup, exploiting liberal weakness, Ferdinand declared the Constitution and the Cádiz decrees null and void, restoring absolutism, old institutions, and the Inquisition.
The Congress of Vienna established the Holy Alliance to defend absolutism and counter liberalism. Opposition from the liberal bourgeoisie and middle classes failed. Peasants resisted rent and taxes, and the army staged uprisings.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, a military uprising led by Colonel Rafael Riego succeeded. The army demanded Ferdinand VII accept a constitutional monarchy and convene Parliament. Elections resulted in a liberal majority, restoring the Constitution and Cádiz reforms. New administrative rules were created, and the National Militia was formed to defend the reforms.
Liberals aimed to dismantle feudalism, liberalize industry and trade, and remove barriers to free movement, aligning with the Catalan bourgeoisie.
Challenges of the Triennium: Royalist Uprisings
The reforms triggered opposition from the monarchy, Ferdinand VII, and European monarchies. Peasant opposition grew in Catalonia due to the loss of traditional rights. The nobility and church encouraged revolts. In 1822, absolutist uprisings in Catalonia highlighted the failure of liberal policies and the strength of absolutism. Clashes arose between moderate and radical liberals.
The Second Restoration of Absolutism (1823-1833)
Ferdinand VII appealed to the Holy Alliance, and in 1823, France sent the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, restoring him as absolute monarch. Fierce repression against liberals followed, with purges in administration and the army. Economic problems worsened by the loss of colonies forced Ferdinand to collaborate with the bourgeoisie, granting a protectionist tariff to Catalans. This angered the nobility and clergy, who rallied around the king’s brother, Carlos, the Count of Molina and heir presumptive.
In 1827, the Malcontents War erupted in Catalonia against Ferdinand VII’s perceived misgovernment. The 1830 birth of Isabella, the king’s daughter, created a succession crisis. Philip V’s Salic Law prevented female rulers. Ferdinand VII enacted the Pragmatic Sanction, abolishing the Salic Law and paving the way for Isabella. In 1832, Carlists (Carlos’s supporters) opposed the Pragmatic Sanction. Maria Cristina, Ferdinand’s wife and Isabella’s regent, sought liberal support. In 1833, Ferdinand VII died, leaving Isabella as heir and Maria Cristina as regent. Carlos proclaimed himself king, starting the First Carlist War.