Spanish Liberalism vs. Absolutism: 19th Century Turmoil & American Independence
The Constitution of 1812: A Brief Liberal Interlude
This constitution resulted from a compromise between liberals and absolutists. Its contents included:
- Establishment of national sovereignty.
- Establishment of a limited monarchy with the division of powers; the courts had broad authority.
- Imposition of Catholicism as the official religion.
The king could not leave the country without the consent of the courts, nor could he bestow the crown, sign treaties, or dissolve the courts. All royal decisions had to pass through the ministers. Although the king had a suspensive veto, he could not sign a bill if he did not wish to. The courts were unicameral. However, this constitution was only in effect during certain periods.
Absolutism vs. Liberalism: The Reign of Ferdinand VII
Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in 1813 with the Treaty of Valençay, welcomed by enthusiastic crowds. Absolutists urged him to restore the old order. Before reaching Madrid, he received the Manifesto of the Persians, encouraging him to ignore the liberals and nullify the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and all the legislative work of the courts of Cádiz (except the abolition of feudal rights). Liberals went into hiding and formed secret societies. Many were jailed, while others were exiled to France or England. Spanish liberals took England as a model for modernization. Between 1815 and 1820, a series of military uprisings staged by liberals occurred. The military acted as arbiters of political life. Meanwhile, in America, independence uprisings broke out, disrupting trade and depriving the Cadiz Court of income. Liberals attempted to dismantle the old regime, despite the king’s resistance through enacting laws and using his suspensive veto. Liberals divided into moderates and radicals. The new liberal courts abolished primogeniture, freed properties from their owners, banned the church from purchasing property, laid the groundwork for the confiscation of church land, and abolished the feudal system. However, there was little time to implement these laws as this period lasted only three years. By the summer of 1822, a powerful anti-government alliance of royalists and the king led to the restoration of absolutism, starting with the revolt of the Royal Guard. Guerrilla forces were organized in Navarre and Catalonia, and the Regency of Urgel was created, intended to act as the legitimate government, but it was dissolved.
The Holy Alliance and the End of the Liberal Triennium
The absolutist European powers formed the Holy Alliance to prevent liberal and revolutionary movements. At the Congress of Verona (1822), they ordered France to intervene in Spain. The French army, the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, supported by Spanish royalists, invaded Spain with little resistance. The government and courts headed south until the liberals released the king. Ferdinand VII, with French aid, restored absolutism, declaring all acts of the Liberal Triennium void and repressing liberals (many of whom fled to England).
Emancipation of Spanish America
The emancipation of the American colonies was primarily led by Creoles. Although whites were only a fifth of the American population, they formed the dominant group. Creoles were economically powerful, enriched by trade and land ownership. They sought independence to free themselves from Spanish monopolies and constraints. One cause of independence was the fear that Spain might lose the war and have to cede American territories. Liberal ideas and the example of North America also played a significant role. The power vacuum in Spain was also crucial. Lower strata of society (Indigenous peoples, Afro-descendants, and mestizos) did not identify with the independence movement and often preferred Spanish rule.
Process of Independence
First Stage: After the defeat at Trafalgar, the Spanish fleet was annihilated, leaving America largely unprotected. At the beginning of the War of Independence, America proclaimed loyalty to Ferdinand VII and created juntas, but an insurrectionary movement began in 1810 when the General Junta was dissolved and its powers transferred to the Council of Regency.
Second Phase: Revolutionary movements arose, creating new American governments. Juntas were convened, armies were organized, relations were established with the United States and England, and constitutional conventions were summoned.
Third Phase: The war in Spain ended, and the first American independence movements concluded. Ferdinand sent an army that by 1815 had controlled most territories, but between 1816 and 1824, independence was achieved. The support of England and the United States was vital, as was the Riego Revolt in 1820, which prevented troops from being sent to America.