Spanish Literature: From Medieval Times to the Renaissance
Uses of the Pronoun “Se” in Spanish
False “Se”: Used as a personal pronoun to replace le, les (indirect object), when followed by a pronoun lo, la, los, las (direct object).
- Function: Indirect Object
- Equivalent: on, it…
- Example: Se lo di (I gave it to him/her/them – I gave the book).
Reflexive Pronoun: Replaces a noun phrase that matches the subject.
- Function: Direct Object, Indirect Object
- Reinforcement: a sí mismo (himself, herself, itself, themselves)
- Example: Carlos se peina (Carlos combs his hair).
Reciprocal Pronoun: Two or more subjects perform an identical action on each other.
- Function: Direct Object, Indirect Object
- Reinforcement: el uno al otro (each other)
- Example: María y Carmen se escriben (Maria and Carmen write to each other).
Pronominal Morpheme: The pronoun is part of the lexical verb; it is analyzed together and does not fulfill a syntactic function.
- Function: “” (none)
- Example: Juan se va (John is leaving).
Ethical Dative: A pronoun that emphasizes or strengthens the person performing the action.
- Function: Adds emphasis, not syntactic
- Example: Se leyó el libro sin rechistar (He read the book without question).
Passive Reflexive: The subject expresses the action but does not produce it; rather, it suffers it.
- Function: Morpheme/Index
- Example: Se vendieron varios cuadros (Several paintings were sold).
Impersonal “Se”: A verbal reflex that indicates the impersonal nature of the sentence.
- Function: Morpheme of impersonality
- Example: Aquí se come muy bien (One eats very well here).
Mester de Clerecía
A literary movement developed in the 13th and 14th centuries. It means “craft of the clergy.” The works have varied themes, and the intention of the works is didactic. They often use clear and direct language to be understood by the people. They use the Romance language of the mester de juglaría (to call attention). The mester de clerecía uses the same stanza form, which means four verses, assonance, and a rhyme scheme of AAAA.
Works in the Mester de Clerecía: Libro de Alexandre, Milagros de Nuestra Señora, Libro de Buen Amor.
Gonzalo de Berceo
The first known Castilian writer. His life and work are linked to San Millán de la Cogolla. He died in the mid-13th century. His most famous work is “Miracles of Our Lady,” a collection of 25 stories. He used Latin manuscripts from monasteries and translated and adapted them, creating his own version. The audience identifies with his work. All the miracle stories exhibit an introduction in which Berceo is presented as a pilgrim.
Book of Good Love
Composed in the mid-14th century, it is a fundamental work of medieval literature. Its author was Juan Ruiz. It is a work belonging to the mester de clerecía with a great variety of themes and styles. It consists of 1728 stanzas, mostly in cuaderna vía. The work is a fictional narrative.
Prose in Medieval Poetry
Medieval literary prose was born after the Toledo School of Translators. This was a decisive antecedent to creating medieval literary prose. Many works of Islamic culture and Jewish fables were translated from Latin. The collectors of oriental tales were a valuable source of inspiration for the subsequent narrative. The most notable figures of prose are Alfonso X “the Wise” and Don Juan Manuel.
Alfonso X “the Wise”
An important figure in the creation of Castilian prose. His reign marked a period of intense scientific and literary activity, thus becoming a center of culture. He perfected and fixed the syntax and spelling. Medieval Castilian was turned into the official language.
Works: General Estoria, Crónica General, Las 7 Partidas, Libros del ajedrez, dados y tablas, Libro del saber de astronomía, Cantigas de Santa María.
Don Juan Manuel
He alternated between political and military activities and literary production. He was buried in the Monastery of Peñafiel, where the originals of his works were sent. His most widespread work is “The Count Lucanor.” He teaches by example. The book consists of 51 stories with the same structure. The teaching of the story is summarized in verses. Most stories that appear are from known sources. Its originality lies in the treatment of the stories.
Literature of the 14th Century
The Middle Ages ended with a series of social, cultural, political, and economic changes. The power of kings increased, and the power of the church fell. The overlords continued to be strengthened by the rise of the bourgeoisie. Great discoveries and scientific advances occurred, such as the discovery of America and the invention of printing. Following clashes between kings and nobles, the Catholic Monarchs brought the Reconquista to an end.
The Traditional Lyric (Romancero)
In the 15th century, traditional lyrical culture followed fundamentally loving themes. The most frequently expressed resources are parallelism, repetition, etc. In this century, the old romances of oral transmission were set.
Source:
- Theory: It is believed to come from the decomposition of ancient epics.
- Theory: Romances were born before and independently of the epics.
Romances are lyrical-epic poems of variable length. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the most outstanding poets continued to write romances. These were the new romances.
Characteristics of the Romance: They use historic and dramatic expressiveness. Resources include calls to the listener’s attention, formulas, brevity, conciseness, and emotional situations. They are often fragmented, with tragic events and historical references. The themes can be classified as historical, frontier, French, romantic, or lyrical.
Cultured Lyric (Courtly Love)
In the 15th century, learned poetry survived. It emerged in Provence in the 12th century and extended to Catalonia, Galicia, and Castile during the 13th and 14th centuries. It is poetry written according to the conventions of courtly love. The beloved is depicted as a superior being. The lover renders vassalage to the woman. Love becomes a kind of spiritual and intellectual religion.
Verses Manriqueñas
A short poem from the 15th century. Its fame is due to a poem that comes out of the current lyric of courtly love songs. In it, the poet reflects on the brevity of life and that death is the same for all. It is an elegy composed of 40 versos manriqueños (stanzas of 6 lines: 8a 8b 4c 8a 8b 4c).
Prose in the 15th Century
Two types were born: the sentimental novel, created by an amorous problem, and the chivalric novel. These novels come from the traditional European opera. The epic heroes have virtues. Scientific and didactic books were also written.
La Celestina
Published anonymously in 1499. In 1500, a new edition by Fernando de Rojas appeared. Then, in 1502, it appeared with five more acts and a prologue. The work is a dialogue but with unique features. It is a narrative work due to its mastery of style and the perfection with which it draws the characters. Characters from different social classes are mixed. Calixto and Melibea are carried away by blind passion. Celestina and the servants are driven by greed.
The Renaissance
An ideological, artistic, and literary movement that began in Italy and spread throughout Europe. It is characterized by an interest in ancient classical culture, nature, and landscape. It is also characterized by an exaltation of human attitudes toward life, optimism, etc.
Renaissance Literature Themes:
- Love: The subjectivity of the poet expresses his most personal feelings.
- Nature: Poetic action is often placed in idealized landscapes.
- Myths: Greek and Latin classics.
- Classical Topics: Carpe Diem and Beatus Ille.
Garcilaso de la Vega
Represents very well the spirit of Spain in the first half of the 16th century. He died young on the battlefield. His works are short but of great quality, containing essential themes and resources.
- Sonnets: He wrote 40 sonnets, almost all on amorous themes.
- Eclogues: Three Garcilasian eclogues, poetic compositions of a pastoral character.
- Songs and Elegies: He also wrote four songs and two elegies. Their lyrical themes are fully Renaissance. His style is based on the ideals of naturalness and balance.
Religious Poetry
In the second half of the 16th century, authors emphasized religious themes. This was a time of exaltation of Catholicism in Spain. Clerics, monks, and nuns were some of the great writers: San Juan de la Cruz, Fray Luis de León, etc. They cultivated ascetic and mystical poetry, which is closer to God and the cleansing of sins.
Fray Luis de León
Born in Belmonte (1527-1591), he was an Augustinian friar. He became a professor but suffered an accusation by mistake, which took him to jail. He was acquitted and could return to his professorship. He wrote important works in prose (Cantar de los Cantares, La Perfecta Casada). His fame is due to his poetry (Oda a la vida retirada, Profecía del Tajo, Noche Serena, En la Ascensión). His poetry shows a restless spirit that seeks peace, harmony, and relaxation.
San Juan de la Cruz
Born in Fontiveros (1542-1591), he was a Carmelite friar. He studied philosophy and theology. He composed three mystical poetic works (Cántico Espiritual, Noche Oscura, Llama de amor viva) that describe the encounter between God and the soul. He wrote explanatory comments for each poem and some short compositions. He united the tradition of erotic lyric with tradition. His compositions are understood as an analysis of a loving relationship and as a description of the union with God.
The Novel – Lazarillo de Tormes
In the 16th century, novels were far from reality. In 1554, a work that constitutes the birth of the modern novel was published: The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes. It is an anonymous work. Lázaro lives in Toledo, where he marries a maid. The work consists of a prologue and seven treatises. It includes many traditional elements. The originality is the anecdotes that are integrated into a narrative in which the character of Lazarus changes. It is the first realistic novel, with the protagonist being an antihero. It has a simple style.
Biography of Cervantes
(1547-1616) Born in Alcalá de Henares, he studied in Madrid. He traveled to Italy, having contact with the Renaissance world. He participated in the Battle of Lepanto. All his experiences will be reflected in his works. His economy was weak, and he had serious personal problems. He achieved success with the first part of Don Quixote (1605).
Work of Cervantes
Poetry and Theater: Viaje del Parnaso is a poem of triplets. He also wrote sonnets, ballads, and carols. In drama, he highlighted comedies (El trato de Argel), tragedy (El cerco de Numancia), and Entremeses (El juez de los divorcios).
Novel: He cultivated all narrative subgenres. His first work was La Galatea (1585), a pastoral novel whose protagonists are shepherds in an idyllic and tangled nature (love story). Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda was his last novel, about the adventures of two young lovers on their pilgrimage to Rome. Novelas Ejemplares (1613) are 12 stories (El coloquio de los perros, La gitanilla, La ilustre fregona).
Don Quixote
The most recognized work of Spanish literature, translated and edited all over the world. Two parts were published: El ingenioso hidalgo… and El ingenioso caballero… In 1614, a false sequel by Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda appeared.
Structure and Argument: The structure has two parts, organized into three sallies (1st sally: 1-6, 2nd sally: 7-52, 3rd sally: part 2).
Genesis and Intention of Don Quixote: To ridicule the men of the stories in books of chivalry. The parody of the comic knight-errant. Search for a representation of idealism against realism. Exhibition of his own ideas.
Characters: The main characters are Don Quixote and Sancho, who represent opposites but actually exchange roles.
Language and Style: Comprehensive narrative technique. The narrator uses double forms of irony and parody. It conveys realism and has a wealth of language and style.
Scientific Terminology
Terms: Loans from Latin and Greek, other languages, eponyms, acronyms, and abbreviations, metaphors.
Coordination: Union of two elements by a conjunction.
- Copulative: Addition (y – and) and denial (ni – nor).
- Disjunctive: Alternation (o – or).
- Adversative: Opposition (pero, mas – but) and exclusion.
- Explanatory: Clarification (es decir, esto es – that is, i.e.).
- Distributive: Coordination.
Subordination: Union of two elements using a link.