Spanish Literature: Modernism and Generation of ’98
Key Works and Authors of Modernism and the Generation of ’98
Rubén Darío – “Blue” (Azul…)
Theme: The poet seeks the secret of poetry, asking his fairy muse for guidance.
Summary: The poet reflects on poetry, yearning to uncover its mysteries. He asks his fairy muse for help, and she leads him on a journey of discovery. She shows him a golden garden, the dawn, and the freshest flowers, but he desires more. Finally, the sight of a beautiful woman’s face provides the ultimate inspiration.
Manuel Machado – “Soul” (Alma)
Theme: A self-portrait of Machado, revealing his internal conflicts.
Summary: “Alma” presents a self-reflective portrayal of Machado. He describes himself as both a victor and a loser, lacking will and illusion, yet simultaneously free and dependent on Gloria. He is without ambition or love, neither loving nor hating. The work concludes with his struggle against life.
Miguel de Unamuno – “Aunt Tula” (La Tía Tula) – Generation of ’98
The narrative revisits significant moments in Ramiro’s life, particularly his memories of Rosa’s beautiful gaze and smile. The author also highlights the childhood games between Ramiro and Rosa, their pursuit of embraces, kisses, and intense eye contact, especially when Ramiro would rest his head on Rosa’s chest, listening to her heartbeat.
Pío Baroja – “Red Dawn” (Aurora Roja)
Theme: Baroja critiques the actions of the “reds” (anti-fascists) against the state.
Summary: “Red Dawn” offers a societal critique of the anti-fascists, criticizing their methods of fighting against state authority. Baroja depicts them as destructive, leaving nothing but ashes in their wake.
Azorín – “The Towns” (Los Pueblos)
Azorín immerses the reader in Santander and Cantabria, providing detailed descriptions of the awakening landscape, trees, and streets, creating a sensation of flying over them. He portrays the streets of Santander as labyrinthine, yet pleasurable, comparing them to those of Sevilla, Burgos, and León, where all streets lead to the cathedral. The journey culminates at the thresholds.
Antonio Machado – “Portrait” (Retrato) – XCVII
This text explores Machado’s childhood, reminiscing about his life in Seville, while his heart remained in the lands of Castile. It also hints at a first love experienced during his youth.
Valle-Inclán – “Autumn Sonata” (Sonata de Otoño)
Theme: The moral dilemma of whether a man should kiss his deceased beloved.
Summary: A man stands in a room with his beloved on her deathbed. He hesitates at the door, uncertain whether to give her a final kiss. He struggles with his principles, believing it to be sacrilegious, and ultimately resists the temptation.
Modernism: An Overview
Modernism originated in Latin America, with Rubén Darío as its primary exponent (1885-1915). In Spain, Modernism manifested in various forms: the modern, the controversial, and the domesticated. Key figures of Spanish Modernism include Manuel Machado, Eduardo Marquina, Francisco Villaespesa, and initially, Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, and Juan Ramón Jiménez.
Spanish Modernism was influenced by:
- Parnassianism: Gautier’s ideal of “Art for Art’s Sake,” emphasizing formal perfection.
- Symbolism: Baudelaire, Verlaine, Rimbaud, and Mallarmé, who sought more than external beauty, using symbols to express deeper meaning.
Key Themes in Modernism
- “Romantic Malaise”: A central feeling of melancholy, similar to the Romantics’ emphasis on irrational passions over reason.
- Escapism: Like the Romantics, Modernists sought to escape from a world with which they disagreed.
- Cosmopolitanism: A desire for evasion and exploration of different cultures.
- Love and Eroticism: Expressions of ideal or impossible love, alongside unrestrained eroticism.
- American and Hispanic Themes: A growing interest in indigenous issues, representing an escape to the past and its myths.