Spanish Literature of the 15th Century: An Overview
1. Spanish Lyric Poetry of the 15th Century
1.1 La Castellana
This popular lyric style emerged in the 15th century and was featured in various songbooks of the period, including those from the palace, Uppsala, Medinaceli, Baena, and Stúñiga. These compositions are characterized by simple expression, great beauty, and lyrical density. Their metric structure often includes irregular verses of six and eight syllables, with a primary focus on amorous themes. One notable compositional technique is the villancixo, similar to the zejel (a stanzaic form of Arabic origin). The carol typically follows this structure:
- Opening lines that are partially or fully repeated as a refrain.
- A mudanza, generally consisting of four verses.
- Two or more lines called vuelta that rhyme and link the mudanza with the refrain.
Christmas carols were traditionally sung during Christmas and Easter, giving rise to the current meaning of the term “Christmas carol.”
1.2 Ballads (Romances)
Ballads are a highly valued form of oral folk poetry in Spanish literature. The earliest known ballads date back to the late 14th and 15th centuries. They are believed to have originated from epic poems that were passed down through oral tradition. Ballads typically feature a series of eight-syllable verses with assonance in pairs. These early ballads, known as old romances, covered a wide range of topics.
Classes of Romances:
- Historical: King Don Rodrigo, Infants of Lara, El Cid.
- Border and Moorish: Conflicts against the Moorish kingdom of Granada.
- Carolingian or Breton: Roland, Charlemagne.
- Romantic and Lyrical: Sentimental and love themes.
Ballads often blend dialogue and narrative, characterized by expressive simplicity and the use of repetition and parallelism. Their popularity led to their adaptation by cultured authors in the 16th and 17th centuries, known as new romances.
1.3 Learned or Courtly Poetry
Alongside popular lyric poetry, a cultured and courtly style of poetry developed in the 15th century. This style was influenced by:
- Provençal troubadour poetry, with its short verses on love themes.
- Italian allegorical poetry, particularly that of Dante, which led to the composition of longer poems in stanzas.
This refined poetry is preserved in various songbooks, such as those of Baena and Stúñiga. Prominent poets of this era include the Marquis de Santillana, Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, and Ausiàs March.
The Marquis of Santillana:
Íñigo López de Mendoza, Marquis de Santillana, wrote his verses in the first half of the 15th century. His work can be classified into:
- Poetry of Provençal influence (e.g., Serranillas).
- Poetry of Italian influence (e.g., sonnets on love and heroic deeds in the Italian manner).
- Moral-didactic poetry (e.g., proverbs).
Juan de Mena, a contemporary of the Marquis de Santillana, is best known for his work “Labyrinth of Fortune,” composed of three hundred stanzas in coplas de arte mayor, a complex and highly expressive verse form.
The Dance of Death:
This unique genre emerged in the 15th century. In these anonymous Spanish dances of death, a skeleton summons individuals from all social classes to remind them of their mortality and invite them to join a macabre dance.
1.4 Jorge Manrique
Jorge Manrique is considered the most important poet of the second half of the 15th century. His poetic production consists of around fifty compositions, primarily love poems and the renowned Coplas por la muerte de su padre (Stanzas on the Death of His Father).
Biography:
Born in Paredes de Nava (Palencia), Manrique actively participated in political life and courtly wars. Although he did not pursue formal university studies, he maintained contact with prominent poets of his time, including his uncle Gómez Manrique and Lope de Stúñiga. He died in 1479 from injuries sustained during the siege of the Castle of Garcimuñoz. His Coplas have become one of the most celebrated lyrical works in Spanish literature.
Coplas por la muerte de su padre:
The dominant theme of the Coplas is the praise of Manrique’s father. This praise is interwoven with reflections on life, death, and the transience of earthly things, all within a Christian medieval framework. The poem also explores the concept of fame and its lasting impact.
Frequent Themes:
- The transience of life (emphasized throughout the poem).
- Life as a river flowing towards death.
- Earthly life as a path to celestial life.
- Ubi sunt? (“Where are they?” – a common medieval motif reflecting on the passing of past glories).
- Death as the great equalizer.
- The pursuit of fame and honor as a way to transcend death.
Characteristics of the Stanzas:
- Thematically, the poem progresses from general reflections on life and death to a specific focus on the deceased father as a heroic figure.
- Some verses serve a propagandistic function, presenting the father as a model Christian gentleman.
- The poem is composed of forty stanzas in a unique verse form known as copla manriqueña. Each stanza consists of two six-line verses (sextets) with a broken rhyme scheme, where the final syllable of one verse is carried over to the beginning of the next. The verses are primarily octosyllabic.
- Manrique employs a simple yet elegant language.
2. Prose in the 15th Century
Prose literature in the 15th century encompassed various genres:
- Short stories
- Novels of chivalry: Breton cycle, Carolingian cycle, Amadis de Gaula, Palmerín de Oliva, Tirant lo Blanc.
- Picaresque novel: Lazarillo de Tormes.
- Pastoral novel: Los siete libros de la Diana.
- Books of chivalry: The Civil War, The War of Granada.
- Byzantine novel: Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda.
- Sentimental novel or novel of love: Cárcel de amor.
3. La Celestina
La Celestina is a cornerstone of Spanish literature, renowned for its profound themes, complex characters, and masterful style.
3.1 Textual Problems and Authorship
The first known edition, published in 1499, lacked a title and author’s name. It consisted of sixteen acts. A subsequent edition in 1500 was titled “Comedy of Calisto and Melibea” and included new verses and introductory information. In the prologue, the author claims to have found the first act already written and decided to continue the story. Later editions, published in Seville (1502?) and Zaragoza (1507), adopted the title “Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea” and expanded the work to twenty-one acts.
3.2 Genre
As a text written entirely in dialogue, La Celestina has been interpreted in various ways. Some consider it a dramatic work intended for reading, while others classify it as a narrative. Some scholars believe it offers a critique of sentimental novels. Regardless of its categorization, La Celestina remains a pivotal and insightful work in Spanish literature.
3.3 Plot
During a chance encounter in Melibea’s garden, Calisto, a young nobleman, falls deeply in love with Melibea, a wealthy and noble lady. Calisto enlists the help of his servant Sempronius, who recommends the services of Celestina, an old procuress and former prostitute. Celestina, through cunning manipulation and trickery, orchestrates a meeting between the lovers. Calisto rewards Celestina with a gold chain. Calisto’s other servant, Pármeno, initially disapproves but eventually joins forces with Sempronius and Celestina to profit from Calisto’s infatuation. They are later caught and executed by the authorities. Calisto continues his nightly visits to Melibea. Elicia and Areúsa, the lovers of Sempronius and Pármeno, seek revenge on Calisto and Melibea. During a commotion in the garden, Calisto falls from a ladder and dies. Melibea, upon learning of Calisto’s death, confesses her love to her father, Pleberio, and then commits suicide by jumping from a tower. The play concludes with Pleberio’s lament over his daughter’s tragic end.
3.4 Characters
The structure and action of La Celestina are largely based on the juxtaposition of two distinct worlds:
- The world of Celestina and the servants: These characters are pragmatic, materialistic, and driven by greed and self-interest.
- The world of Calisto and Melibea: While not entirely virtuous, Calisto and Melibea represent a world of passionate love, hypocrisy, and social ostentation.
This contrast highlights the diverse social realities coexisting within the same narrative.
Personalities of Calisto and Melibea’s World:
- Calisto: A wealthy and idle nobleman, Calisto is consumed by his passion for Melibea and seeks only to satisfy his desires. He lacks scruples and readily resorts to bribery and the manipulation of others to achieve his goals.
- Melibea: Also from a wealthy noble family, Melibea transforms into a passionate and reckless woman when she falls in love. Her suicide underscores her role as a tragic heroine driven by love.
- Melibea’s parents (Pleberio and Alisa): They are bound by the conventions of their social class and preoccupied with wealth and material concerns.
Characters of Celestina’s World:
- Celestina: A cunning and manipulative former prostitute turned procuress, Celestina is acutely aware of human weaknesses and exploits them for her own gain. She is a central figure in the play, driven by ambition and greed.
- Pármeno and Sempronius: Initially presented as faithful servants, they are ultimately revealed as ambitious and opportunistic individuals who join forces with Celestina to exploit Calisto’s passion.
- Elicia and Areúsa: Prostitutes in Celestina’s brothel and lovers of Sempronius and Pármeno, they play a significant role in Calisto’s downfall by seeking revenge for their lovers’ deaths.
3.5 The Love of Calisto and Melibea
One of the most debated aspects of La Celestina is the seemingly inexplicable nature of Calisto and Melibea’s love. Despite their similar social standing, they are unable to openly express their love or pursue marriage. Several theories have been proposed to explain this, including social and religious reasons. It’s possible that one or both characters belong to a family of Jewish converts, which could have prevented a socially acceptable union. Ultimately, the author may have intended to portray the tragic consequences of passionate love when mediated by a manipulative third party, embodied by the central figure of Celestina.
3.6 Language and Style
: One of the highlights is the conscious use of 2 levels of language: The cult and the popular. CALISTO LANGUAGE AND MELIBEA: calisto actors and tb Pleberio melibea and worship and use language appropriate to the bombastic high social class who own servants of Calisto pertenecen.los sometimes criticize the rhetoric and lofty language of his master. LECELSTINA LANGUAGE AND BRED: Celestine and bred ls belonging to a humble social class using a popular language full of vivacity and dynamics, colloquialisms jokes and insults and support their short sentences in razonamietos Although celestite x refranes.no example kuando suits their interests or used with calisto melibea more cult language. 3.7LO MEDIEVAL AND THE RENAISSANCE: celestite is riding between 2 mentalities: the old medieval conception is depleted k x one hand and the new Renaissance vision. THE MEDIEVAL: x one hand the work reflects the moralistic purpose in the death of lovers and servants km divine punishment x desordenada.el author leads his life his work with a didactic moral consideration. THE RENAISSANCE: aspects of the new attitude Renaissance are x example buskeda sensuality and pleasure of individualism or the secularization of life.