Spanish Literature of the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
Spanish Literature: Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
The End of an Empire and the Rise of Modernism
At the end of the 19th century, the disastrous events of 1898 saw Spain lose the remnants of its former empire. The 20th century began with political instability and social upheaval during the reign of Alfonso XIII. Spain’s foreign policy involved entanglements with France and Germany in the scramble for African territories, leading to significant conflicts in Morocco with major national repercussions. The Tragic Week revolt in Barcelona, characterized by its anti-militarist and anti-clerical nature, was brutally suppressed.
Between 1923 and 1930, Spain endured the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. His abdication led to elections where the populace overwhelmingly rejected the monarchy, opting for a republic. This ultimately resulted in a civil war, during which Francisco Franco attempted to restore the monarchy and peace, though the king died before the war’s end.
Modernism: A Literary Movement
Modernism, an aesthetic movement, emerged as a synthesis of Parnassianism and Symbolism. From Parnassianism, it inherited a taste for refined form and perfection; from Symbolism, a penchant for musicality and the use of symbols. Introduced to Spain in 1900 by Rubén Darío, Modernism presented several key characteristics:
- Discomfort with society and an anti-bourgeois, anti-vulgar, and anti-realist stance.
- Classical antiquity and legendary themes as settings.
- A cult of formal beauty.
Modernist literary innovations included:
- A focus on themes previously explored in medieval romances.
- A symbolist interpretation of reality.
- Sensual evocation in poetic trends.
- A lush and expressive language aiming for literary beauty.
- Exploration of musicality through diverse metrical forms.
Rubén Darío
Rubén Darío, born in Nicaragua to separated parents, was raised by his aunt and educated in a Jesuit school. His two marriages ended in divorce, and he lived a bohemian life marked by debt, eventually dying of cirrhosis. His notable works include “Azul” and “Prosas profanas.” Gonzalo de Berceo referred to his style as “liminal words.” Darío’s poetry reflects the influence of Spanish and French poets (such as Victor Hugo), showcasing Modernism’s admiration for these traditions. His “Cantos de vida y esperanza,” published in Madrid on the third anniversary of the first edition of “Don Quixote,” paid tribute to Cervantes. Themes in his work include admiration for 18th-century France, and the blending of Indigenous American and Spanish heritage. Aesthetic aspects of his poetry include lexical enrichment (learned words, neologisms, synesthesia), lexical renewal (Alexandrine verses, internal rhymes), and symbolism (blue representing beauty, youth, and sky; the swan symbolizing elegance).
Generation of ’98
G 98: This group, named by Azorín (a member), in an ABC publication, rebelled against the loss of Spain’s colonies and sought to regenerate Spanish life. Key features included:
- Religion: While the subject of religion had a significant social impact, members held diverse views, ranging from atheism and agnosticism to traditional beliefs.
- Spain’s Identity: A desire to revive the Spain of Philip II’s empire and restore its former glory.
- Political Ideologies: Early socialist and anarchist leanings in some members evolved into republican, communist, or revolutionary ideals over time, contrasting with their initial conservatism.
- Rejection of Contemporary Spain: A collective rejection of the Spain in which they lived.
- Stylistic Innovations: A rejection of perceived poverty in realism and rhetoric, favoring simplicity.
- Focus on Castile: A passion for Castile, engaging with farmers and reviving forgotten words.
Key Members
Ángel Ganivet, a precursor to the group, died in 1898, leaving behind a substantial body of work, including “Idearium español.” Azorín, Baroja, and Maeztu formed a core trio, issuing a manifesto against the government and the perceived listlessness following the loss of the empire. They sent a copy to Unamuno. Maeztu later aligned with Primo de Rivera and was executed by Republicans. Unamuno, a prolific intellectual, spanned various literary genres and opposed Primo de Rivera, leading to his exile. Antonio Machado, initially a modernist, produced works such as “Soledades” and “Campos de Castilla.” Valle-Inclán, creator of the “esperpento,” saw his plays hampered by censorship and staging challenges. Jacinto Benavente, a highly successful author of the early 20th century, initially offered sharp criticism but later moderated his stance. Menéndez Pidal, a scholar of Spanish history and language, served as a long-time director of the Royal Spanish Academy and authored “Historia de España”.