Spanish Middle Ages: Society, Culture & Literature
The Spanish Middle Ages (5th-15th Century)
Defining the Period
The Middle Ages in Spain spanned roughly from the 5th century (traditionally 476 – Fall of the Western Roman Empire) to the end of the 15th century (marked by events like the Discovery of America in 1492).
Society Structure
Medieval Spanish society followed a strict hierarchy:
- The King: Held absolute power.
- The Clergy: Comprised church officials and personnel.
- The Nobility: Included courtiers and feudal lords.
- The Common People: Constituted the majority of the population. They were largely uneducated, lacked freedom, and worked as farmers on feudal lands in exchange for the right to live there and receive sustenance.
Culture and Learning
Society was primarily agricultural, often relying on barter (exchange of goods). Literacy was low among the general population. Key centers for cultural development and learning included:
- Monasteries
- Royal Courts
- Early Universities
- Towns
- The Camino de Santiago (Way of St. James)
Significant developments in the 15th century included the publication of La Celestina, the creation of the first grammar of the Castilian language (by Antonio de Nebrija), and the introduction of the printing press.
Early Medieval Spanish Literature
Lyric Poetry
Primitive Lyric
- Jarchas: The earliest examples, appearing as final verses (in Mozarabic dialect) of longer Arabic or Hebrew poems called muwashshahas. They often expressed themes of love from a female perspective.
- Cantigas de Amigo: Love poems written in Galician-Portuguese, typically voiced by a woman lamenting her lover’s absence.
Mester de Juglaría (Art of the Minstrels)
This refers to the work of minstrels (juglares) who traveled from village to village performing epic poems (cantares de gesta) and other songs. The most famous surviving epic is the Cantar de Mio Cid (Song of My Cid), which narrates the adventures of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, covering his exile, the weddings of his daughters, and the affront of Corpes.
Mester de Clerecía (Art of the Clergy)
This was the work of educated clerics who wrote primarily didactic and religious works in a more regular meter and refined style than the minstrels. Notable examples include:
- Milagros de Nuestra Señora (Miracles of Our Lady) by Gonzalo de Berceo.
- Libro de Buen Amor (Book of Good Love) by Juan Ruiz, Archpriest of Hita.
Prose
- Alfonso X the Wise: King Alfonso X was a crucial promoter of Castilian as a language of culture and learning. He directed the Toledo School of Translators, where works from Arabic and Hebrew were translated into Castilian, preserving knowledge from the diverse cultures (Muslim, Jewish, Christian) coexisting on the Iberian Peninsula.
- Don Juan Manuel: Nephew of Alfonso X, he was influenced by the translated works. His most famous work is El Conde Lucanor (Count Lucanor), which uses a frame story structure:
- Count Lucanor presents a problem or question to his advisor, Patronio.
- Patronio responds by telling an exemplary story (with an introduction, body, and conclusion).
- Patronio explains how the story’s lesson applies to the Count’s situation.
- Don Juan Manuel often adds a final couplet summarizing the moral.
Theatre
Medieval Spanish theatre originated from liturgical drama within the Catholic Mass. Short representations of biblical events (especially the life of Christ) gradually became longer and more elaborate. They moved from the altar, to the church porch, and finally into the public squares. While initially religious, secular themes began to appear as performances moved outside the church. An early surviving piece is the Auto de los Reyes Magos (Play of the Magi).
Late Medieval Spanish Literature (15th Century)
Lyric Poetry
Traditional Lyric (Romancero Viejo)
This refers to the rich collection of anonymous ballads (romances) that circulated orally. Many derived from older epic poems. Themes included historical events, border conflicts with the Moors (romances fronterizos), French epic material, and love stories. Their characteristic form influenced later poets.
Cultured Lyric (Cancionero Poetry)
This poetry, often compiled in collections called cancioneros (songbooks), focused heavily on themes of courtly love. The poet typically portrays himself as a vassal suffering for an idealized, unattainable lady who is depicted as his feudal superior. Notable authors include:
- Marqués de Santillana
- Juan de Mena
- Jorge Manrique: Famous for his poignant elegy, Coplas por la muerte de su padre (Stanzas on the Death of his Father).
Prose
- Chivalric Novels (Libros de caballerías): These immensely popular works narrated the fantastical adventures of wandering knights who performed heroic deeds, overcame obstacles, and dedicated their victories to their beloved ladies. The most famous prototype is Amadís de Gaula.
- Sentimental Romances (Novela sentimental): These focused on the intricacies and sufferings of love affairs, often presented through letters or dialogues, and frequently ending tragically. An example is Cárcel de Amor (The Prison of Love) by Diego de San Pedro.
Theatre
Besides religious drama, allegorical works like the Danza de la Muerte (Dance of Death) were significant. The period culminates with a masterpiece that transcends medieval genres:
La Celestina by Fernando de Rojas
- Title: Originally published as Comedia de Calisto y Melibea, later expanded and retitled Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea.
- Genre: Difficult to classify; often called a ‘humanistic comedy’ or ‘dialogue novel’. It was likely intended for dramatic reading rather than full stage performance.
- Plot: It tells the passionate and ultimately tragic story of the lovers Calisto and Melibea, whose relationship is arranged by the cunning old procuress, Celestina. Greed leads to Celestina’s murder by Calisto’s servants, Pármeno and Sempronio, after she refuses to share her reward. The servants are caught and executed. Calisto dies in an accidental fall, and Melibea commits suicide by jumping from a tower after confessing everything to her father.
- Moral/Themes: The work serves as a stark warning against the destructive power of lust (loco amor) and greed. It explores themes of fortune, fate, the decaying social order, and the consequences of immoral actions.