Spanish Modernism and the Generation of ’98: A Literary Journey
Spanish Modernism
Definition
Modernism is an artistic movement that began around 1888 and continued until 1914. More than just an aesthetic movement, it represents a shift in attitude and a distinct period style that broke away from prevailing artistic norms.
Characteristics
- Sources: Latin America, particularly Rubén Darío’s “Azul” (1880).
- Influences: French Romanticism, Parnassianism, and Symbolism.
- Themes: The pursuit of beauty, both in the external world (evocations of the past and legends) and the poet’s inner life (melancholy, ennui, nature’s harmony).
- Language and Style: Emphasis on aesthetics, sensory language, and metrical innovation.
- Key Authors: Rubén Darío, Salvador Rueda, Villaespesa, Antonio Machado, Manuel Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Ramón del Valle-Inclán.
The Generation of ’98
Defining Features
- Concern for Spain’s decline.
- Philosophical and literary introspection.
- Admiration for Spanish literary giants like Larra, Quevedo, and Cervantes.
- Emphasis on concise and impactful expression.
- Genre innovation (e.g., Unamuno’s “nivola” and Valle-Inclán’s esperpento).
Thematic Focus
- Critical and sentimental perspectives on Spain.
- Existential anxieties.
Prominent Authors
- Miguel de Unamuno
- Azorín
- Pío Baroja
- Ramón del Valle-Inclán (with reservations)
- Antonio Machado (with reservations)
Antonio Machado
Life and Background
Born in Seville, Antonio Machado moved to Madrid for his education at the Free Institution of Education. His 1903 publication, “Solitudes,” established him as a significant poetic voice. In 1907, he began teaching French in Soria, where he fell in love and married Leonor. Her untimely death plunged him into deep sorrow. A staunch Republican, Machado went into exile during the Spanish Civil War, eventually settling in Collioure, France, where he died in 1939.
Ideology and Poetics
Machado’s ideology evolved from middle-class reformist liberalism to a more radical stance. His poetry is characterized by:
- Essentiality: Concise and impactful language.
- Seasonality: Themes reflecting the passage of time and the cycles of nature.
Recurring Themes
- Time and memory.
- Travel and the search for meaning.
- Existential questions.
- Love and loss (Leonor and Guiomar).
- The essence of Spain.
Poetic Stages
- Early Stage: Represented by “Solitudes” (revised in 1907). Explores themes of time, memory, and existentialism.
- Castilian Stage: Marked by “Campos de Castilla” (1912). Reflects on life, death, Spanish history, and the Castilian landscape. Shows the influence of Andalusian folk poetry.
- Mature Stage: Exemplified by “New Songs.” Combines earlier themes of Castilian landscapes, Andalusian influences, and introspective dreams.
Prose Works
Machado also wrote prose, exploring literature, philosophy, and politics in works like “Juan de Mairena” and “Abel Martín.”
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Life and Dedication
Juan Ramón Jiménez dedicated his life to poetry. His work is a testament to his relentless pursuit of beauty and a yearning for eternity. He married Zenobia Camprubí, who played a crucial role in his life and work. Jiménez was known for constantly revising his poems, striving for perfection.
Poetic Evolution
- Sensitive Stage: Characterized by themes of nostalgia, longing for the unknown, and the presence of death. Shows Symbolist influences. Key works include “Arias Tristes” and “Platero y yo.”
- Intellectual Stage: Marked by a shift from melancholy to a more vitalistic outlook. The poet seeks the “exact name of things” to uncover deeper meanings. A pivotal work from this stage is “Diary of a Newly Married Poet.”
- Sufficient Stage: Obsession with “poetic life,” eternity, and the desire for enduring work. Key themes include fulfillment and the creative process. “Animal de Fondo” is a significant work from this period.
Creative Impulses
- Women (especially Zenobia).
- The act of writing and perfecting his craft.
- Contemplation of death and eternity.