Spanish Monarchy: Charles V and Philip II
Charles V
Early Reign and Challenges
Upon the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand, in 1516, Charles of Habsburg inherited the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. He was crowned king and traveled to the Iberian Peninsula, despite not knowing Castilian. Flemish advisors occupied important positions in the court and church, causing resentment among the Castilian nobility.
Charles I summoned the Cortes to vote for new taxes, leading to immediate protests in Castile and Aragon. The Castilians demanded the king reside in the kingdom and respect its laws. The Communities of Castile, unhappy with the king’s governance, revolted in the Revolt of the Comuneros.
Revolt of the Comuneros
The revolt was fueled by several factors, including the perceived humiliation of the Castilian aristocracy by the king’s reliance on Flemish advisors, the use of Castilian tax money to fund Charles’s election as Holy Roman Emperor, and the fear that the traditional policy of exporting raw wool to Flanders would harm Castilian textile crafts.
The revolt began in Toledo and spread to other cities. Royal authorities were replaced by commoners. After the burning of Medina del Campo by royal troops, the uprising gained momentum. The Comuneros established the Santa Junta in Tordesillas as a rebel government, demanding the withdrawal of taxes, respect for Castilian laws, and the removal of Flemish advisors.
The Comuneros attempted to persuade Joanna, Charles’s mother, who was confined in Tordesillas, to lead the rebellion, but failed. The revolt led to social unrest and anti-seigneurial rebellions in some areas. Internal divisions and the radicalization of the anti-seigneurial movement weakened the Comuneros.
Following the defeat of the Comuneros’ troops at Villalar in 1521, most cities abandoned the movement. Toledo was finally subdued in 1522. The Comuneros’ leaders, Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado, were executed. The defeat marked the beginning of absolutism in Castile and strengthened the king’s power.
Revolt of the Germanias
The Revolt of the Germanias in the Kingdom of Valencia was caused by an economic crisis and epidemics, coupled with social discontent among artisans and small retailers against the urban oligarchy and nobility.
The revolt began in Valencia in 1520, taking advantage of the nobility’s absence due to the plague. It spread to the south of the kingdom. The agermanats (rebels) also attacked the Moors, fueled by religious hatred and accusations of Moorish support for the nobility and the Crown.
Charles V initially reacted slowly, but eventually ordered the Viceroy to suppress the revolt. The conflict escalated into a direct confrontation between the agermanats and the nobility. The rebellion was finally quelled in 1522.
Philip II
Reign and Challenges
Philip II, son of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, was prepared for kingship from a young age. He inherited the Spanish Empire upon Charles’s abdication in 1556. Portugal and its empire were added in 1580. Under Philip II (1556-1598), Spanish hegemony reached its peak.
Charles V had relinquished the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg possessions in Austria to his brother Ferdinand, creating two branches of the dynasty ruling in Madrid and Vienna. After travels in Italy and the Netherlands, Philip established his capital in Madrid.
Major internal problems during Philip II’s reign included the death of Prince Charles, who had been arrested for alleged involvement in a succession plot, and the powerful figure of his secretary, Antonio Perez. Perez was dismissed and accused of corruption, fled the country, and became a vocal critic of Philip II. Supported by the king’s foreign enemies, Perez contributed to the formation of the “Black Legend” against Spain.
Policies and Conflicts
Philip II’s policies were strongly influenced by the idea of religious unity. He intervened against Barbary and Turkish incursions in the Mediterranean, achieving a major victory at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Within the Iberian Peninsula, he harshly repressed Moorish uprisings, such as the one in the Alpujarras (Granada).
Relations with England deteriorated, as England supported Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Philip’s attempt to invade England with the Spanish Armada in 1588 ended in failure, marking the beginning of the decline of Spanish naval power in the Atlantic.
One of Philip’s greatest triumphs was achieving Iberian unity by annexing Portugal and its dominions in 1581, enforcing his inheritance rights after the death of the Portuguese king Sebastian without an heir.
Philip II was unable to resolve the political and religious conflicts in the Netherlands, where Calvinist rebels sought greater autonomy. Successive governors failed to quell the rebellion, which eventually led to the independence of the United Provinces (Dutch Republic) in the 17th century.
Political Model of the Austrian Habsburgs
The Austrian Habsburgs centralized political power in the hands of the monarchs, reducing the aristocracy’s influence. The aristocracy retained important roles in the army, navy, and diplomacy, but remained subordinate to the crown. Castile became the center of the empire, particularly under Philip II.
Viceroys were established in other kingdoms and possessions (Aragon, India, Italy), while governors ruled in the Netherlands and Milan. These positions were held by high nobles or royal family members.
The king was advised by councils (Polysynody system). These councils could be sectoral (e.g., finance) or territorial (e.g., Castile, Aragon, India, Italy). They were composed of lawyers, nobles, and high clergy, and their role was purely advisory. The king had the final say.
Charles V and Philip II relied on secretaries, trusted advisors who acted as intermediaries between the king and the councils. Some secretaries, like Antonio Perez under Philip II, gained considerable influence.
Territorial administration preserved the legacy of the Catholic Monarchs. Corregidores, appointed by the crown, controlled the cities. Other bureaucratic positions included accountants, tax collectors, sheriffs, and police officials. Chancillerias and audiencias were responsible for the administration of justice.
In 1561, Philip II established the capital in Madrid.