Spanish Restoration: Political System, Turnismo, and Crisis
The Spanish Restoration (1875-1923)
The political system during the Spanish Restoration was a liberal monarchy, though constitutional, oligarchic, and arguably undemocratic. The system operated in a bipartisan manner, with a conservative party (led by Cánovas) on the moderate right and a liberal party (led by Sagasta) on the liberal left. Both parties, while differing in some respects, were notably monarchist, capitalist, and committed to private property and individual freedoms.
Turnismo: Alternation of Power
This political system functioned through turnismo, an agreed alternation of power. When the government lost the support of the monarch and the courts, the monarch would appoint a new government.
Electoral Corruption
The process was marred by electoral corruption, beginning with:
- Typecasting: Compiling lists of deputies for the king by leaders and ministers.
- Allocation of Seats: The government predetermined the election results.
- Caciquismo: Local political bosses (caciques) exerted influence through favors and threats to voters, mayors, provincial governors, and chiefs.
- Rigging: Distortion of voter lists or manipulation of votes, particularly effective in rural areas. If victory remained elusive, new elections were called.
Impact of the System
This process had several impacts:
- Perversion of Democracy: Leading to absenteeism as people lost faith in the system due to corruption.
- Political Tranquility: Ending military uprisings.
- Economic Development: Benefiting the dominant class through economic protectionism, ensuring the consumption of domestic products.
Stages of the Restoration
Government of Alfonso XII (1875-1885)
This period was marked by stability. Cánovas focused on pacifying the country, which was suffering the Third Carlist War. Previous wars had occurred due to attempts to restore Carlos María Isidro of Spain to power, leading to exile for those who refused to renounce their ideals. A pardon was granted to those who surrendered their weapons, allowing them to remain in Spain. The Basque privileges (fueros) were also abolished. Additionally, the war in Cuba was resolved through the Peace of Zanjón, granting amnesty, recognizing Cuba as a Spanish province, and ending slavery.
Regency of Maria Cristina (1885-1902)
Maria Cristina served as regent until her child, Alfonso XIII, turned 16. This period saw the beginning of the crisis of the turnista system. Spain agreed to the Pact of El Pardo following the death of Alfonso XII. Sagasta governed for a long period, marked by the Disaster of ’98, the loss of the last Spanish colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines). Several measures were enacted, including freedom of expression, the Association Act of 1887, the Jury Act of 1880, and universal suffrage in 1890. The latter facilitated the presence of non-dynastic parties in parliament, such as Pablo Iglesias of the PSOE in 1910, favored by the expansion of urban areas and the rise of the labor movement.
Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
During the reign of Alfonso XIII, the turnista system was exhausted. The regenerationist movement, led by Joaquín Costa, pressured Maura and Canalejas to address various problems. Maura and Canalejas served as Conservative and Liberal leaders, respectively. The problems included the labor movement due to the absence of democracy, the Catalan (autonomic) and Basque (independence) nationalist movements, the lack of decentralization, and the military’s unrest due to the collapse of colonialism. Faced with these challenges, Alfonso XIII ceded power to Miguel Primo de Rivera, resulting in a coup.