Spanish Romanticism: A Literary and Cultural Revolution
1. Introduction
The Romantic movement was a profound cultural revolution that introduced a new sensibility. Subjectivity became paramount, often in conflict with the world. The emergence of this new aesthetic in Spain coincided with the development of the bourgeoisie and a new social and economic order. In literature, the movement triumphed in theater. Narrative titles followed new approaches, modeled after the work of Sir Walter Scott. Poetry developed later.
2. Historical and Cultural Context
Amidst the ongoing political changes of the 19th century, the establishment of the capitalist system and the liberal state led to the rise of the bourgeoisie. In Spain, this transformation was complex. Confiscation worsened the conditions of the rural poor, but progress was evident in the development of the textile and mining industries, the mechanization of industry, and the growth of the steel industry.
Culturally, the development of the printing press and editorial journalism favored the dissemination of theories and literary works, stimulating reading and increasing literacy rates. New spaces for social and cultural life emerged, such as bullfights, theaters, cafes, and concerts.
3. Romanticism
Romanticism was a cultural and artistic movement that emerged in Germany and England in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and spread across Europe. It represented the beginning of modernity and laid the foundations of the ideology of the bourgeois liberal state.
3.1. Main Characteristics of Romanticism
3.1.1. Freedom and Individualism
Romanticism exalted the importance of the individual and asserted their freedom as a supreme value: freedom of moral, political, and artistic expression. These values are linked to rebellion against established laws (tyranny) and rebellion against God (Satanism).
3.1.2. Subjectivity and Sentimentality
It claimed the subjective conception of reality; in literary creation, this manifests within the Romantic self.
3.1.3. Existential Angst
The yearning for freedom and ideals that collide with reality led to existential angst. The human condition and marginalization became central themes.
3.1.4. Historicism and Nationalism
The Romantics valued the historical character of artistic works. Through the influence of German Romanticism, an interest in medieval literature, Baroque theater, and figures like Don Juan emerged. They leaned on the past. The interest in Spanish culture led to the search for national identity and the rebirth of Galician and Catalan literature.
3.1.5. Escapism and Irrationalism
The past, exotic spaces, and Eastern cultures served as stages for expressing aspirations and ideals, rejecting the present reality. There was a taste for the grim and macabre.
3.2. Themes and Style
According to the Romantic ideal, the most important themes were freedom, power, justice, the meaning of life, the silence of God, the destiny of human beings and its mysteries, and, of course, love. Romantic writers rejected linguistic conventions and embraced the mixture of genres and styles. The style emphasized exclamatory statements, a lexicon dominated by emotion, and linguistic resources to express subjectivity and sentimentality.
4. Evolution of Romanticism in Spain
Spanish Romantic literature was influenced by European writers whose ideas were integrated into their work. There are three stages in the evolution of Spanish Romanticism:
4.1. First Stage
In the early 19th century, the ideas of German Romantics spread. During this stage, a traditional, conservative view prevailed, coupled with the defense of Catholicism as a cultural landmark.
4.2. Second Stage
In the mid-1830s, the new movement gained momentum, influenced by French Romanticism. The return of exiled liberals imposed a new, progressive direction.
4.3. Third Stage
This stage corresponds to the transition to Realism. In poetry, an intimate tendency developed, influenced by German folk poetry.
5. The Romantic Drama
It began with the premiere of The Conspiracy of Venice (1834) by Martínez de la Rosa, Macías (1834) by Larra, and Don Álvaro or the Force of Fate (1835) by the Duke of Rivas. Based on these three plays, The Troubadour (1836) and The Lovers of Teruel (1837) were composed. In the following decade, Don Juan Tenorio (1844) by José Zorrilla excelled.
The works were divided into acts (events) composed of various scenes. They mixed verse and prose and featured polymetry. The rule of three unities was broken, allowing for secondary episodes and picturesque scenes from everyday life. Tragic and comic elements were also blended. The major themes of Romantic drama were fate, passionate love, revenge, power, and authority.
5.1. Works of Romantic Theater
5.1.1. Don Álvaro or the Force of Fate
The themes of Don Álvaro are fate, revenge, and honor, characteristic motifs of Romantic drama. The main character (Don Álvaro) is a mestizo, marked and rejected by his obscure origin. He also loses his love and suffers one misfortune after another. In the end, desperate and insane, he is described as a messenger from hell. Stylistically, it mixes prose and polymetric verse.
5.1.2. Don Juan Tenorio
This drama takes on the myth of Don Juan. However, the protagonist’s final conversion breaks with the tragic vision of other major Romantic works; it is a product of a different context, the triumph of liberalism. The most important theme is the freedom to choose, alongside love and God’s mercy. The structure consists of two parts. The first focuses on the characterization of the protagonist, his actions, and his wagers. The second focuses on the cemetery, with the appearance of the Stone Guest, death, and Don Juan’s salvation. The play is written in verse and presents polymetry.
6. Romantic Prose
6.1. The Historical Novel
The attraction to the historical past and the influence of Sir Walter Scott led to the development of the historical novel, exemplified by On May 2nd (1846).
6.2. The Social Novel
It aimed to raise important social issues, particularly the conditions of the proletariat. The Laborer’s Daughter (1845) stands out.
6.3. Other Genres
Narratives emerged later with costumbrista (regional customs and manners) elements, foreshadowing Realism, as in the works of Fernán Caballero.
6.4. Costumbrismo
Costumbrista sketches are descriptive texts that reflect different aspects of society at the time.
6.5. The Prose of Larra
Larra is considered the creator of the literary article in Spain. His works include Articles of Customs (critically analyzing contemporary reality and proposing reforms for a freer and more cultivated society), Political Articles (reflecting his liberal ideology and the political situation in Spain), and Literary Criticism (criticizing plays both textually and for their staging and public reception). His style, often using pseudonyms, is characterized by exaggeration, irony, metaphors, burlesque comparisons, and wordplay.
7. Romantic Poetry
It had a late flowering. The first manifestations featured neoclassical elements. The poetry of the first half of the 19th century is characterized by a mix of genres and styles. Metrically, innovation is seen in polymetry and the use of various metrical feet and stanza forms.
7.1. Narrative Poetry
Narrative poetry favored legends, traditions, and popular ballads, incorporating elements of fantasy. The Moorish Foundling (1843) is a notable example.
7.2. The Poetry of Espronceda
Songs: The Pirate and The Beggar exalt freedom and individualism.
The Student of Salamanca: Based on the myth of the trickster, the sinner who witnesses his own funeral and the veiled women. The protagonist, Félix de Montemar, abandons Elvira.
The Devil World: Fragmentary, with digressions, thematic and stylistic diversity. It includes the”Canto a Teresa” dedicated to his lover, Teresa Mancha, who died in 1839.
7.3. The Poetry of Bécquer
Naturally short and concise, Bécquer’s poetic renewal lies in creating an intimate poetry, simple and devoid of artifice.
Rhymes:
7.3.1. Love
Optimistic and joyful at times, but dominated by pain for a perfect, unattainable love.
7.3.2. Solitude, Anguish, and Death
Frustrated love leads to loneliness, linked to the anguish of living. Pain so extreme that the poet yearns for dissolution in nature.
7.3.3. Dreams and Nature
A fusion between the dream world and the waking world, where nature takes on different forms.
7.3.4. Poetry and Literary Creation
The sources of poetry are women and love: poetry is feeling, and feeling is woman.