Spanish Romanticism in the 19th Century: Literature, Art, and Culture
Society and Culture in the First Half of the 19th Century
The first half of the 19th century witnessed a shift in Spain’s social structure, paving the way for a new societal order. Political parties closest to the regime included the traditional conservatives and moderates, while liberals advocated for change. Social transformations were driven by the French Revolution, which paradoxically resulted in an authoritarian government under Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon extended conformist political ideas across Europe. The revolution also brought about the Industrial Revolution, which changed the living conditions of many people. A new social class emerged—the proletarians, or factory workers. In Spain, the war of independence, which ended later than in other parts of Europe, resulted in an absolute monarchy rather than the anticipated liberal regime. During the reign of Fernando VII, liberals were persecuted and forced into exile. While in exile, Spanish liberals encountered Romanticism, which had begun in Germany.
Romantic Literature
Romanticism was a movement that developed in the first half of the 19th century, characterized by a desire for renewal and the defense of creative freedom. Key themes include:
- Freedom: Romantics rejected limitations and freely mixed forms that neoclassicists believed to be incompatible.
- Love: For Romantics, life was meaningless without love. Many would rather die than give up their love, even if it was impossible.
- Nature: Romantics might be born in the city, but their preferred landscape was the wilderness, where nature thrived uncontrolled by man.
- Mystery: Romantic works are often filled with disturbing supernatural elements, such as ghosts, witches, and enchanted objects.
- The Journey: Escaping the everyday, Romantics recreated past eras (like the Middle Ages) and distant lands.
- Popular Traditions: Romantics believed that each nation had a unique way of being, expressed through its folklore and traditions. They attached great importance to feelings and used literature as a vehicle for lyrical expression.
The Romantic Poets
José de Espronceda:
Born in Almendralejo in 1808, Espronceda was a rebel from a young age. He organized a secret society, “The Numantians,” aimed at ending the absolute monarchy. This led to his exile, and he spent most of his life in France, Portugal, and England. His great love was Teresa Mancha, whose father eventually forced them apart. Espronceda’s political commitment led him to be elected as a member of the Progressive Party in 1842, the year he died at the age of 34. Though educated in neoclassicism, Espronceda’s work soon turned against it. In “El Pastor Clasiquino,” he parodied neoclassical poetry. His 1840 anthology, “Poesías Líricas,” features the notable “Canciones.”
The Rhymes of Bécquer:
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer was born in Seville in 1836. He lost his parents as a child and lived with his brother Valeriano, with whom he undertook many projects. At 18, he went to Madrid to pursue art but struggled to make a living. His love life was unhappy. In 1870, he died of tuberculosis without having published a book. Bécquer is considered the second most important Spanish Romantic poet. In 1871, his friends compiled his poems in “Rimas.” Bécquer’s late Romanticism differs greatly from Espronceda’s. While Espronceda embraced rebellion, Bécquer preferred natural expression and harmonious metrics. His compositions are largely based on the romance and the ballad.
Rosalía de Castro:
Born in Santiago de Compostela in 1837, Rosalía de Castro’s father was a clergyman and her mother unmarried. These circumstances complicated her childhood. She moved to Madrid and published her first poetry collection, “La Flor,” in 1857. She later married the historian Manuel Murguía and continued her literary career. Her family life was difficult; she raised six children with limited resources. She died of cancer in 1885 at the age of 48. Rosalía is a central figure in the “Rexurdimento,” a cultural movement that revitalized Galician literature in the second half of the 19th century. She also holds an important place in Castilian Romantic poetry with two key works: “La Flor” (1857), a youthful work reminiscent of Espronceda, and “En las orillas del Sar” (1884), which presents her definitive vision of love, heartbreak, and death.
The Prose of Romanticism
Mariano José de Larra:
Born in Madrid in 1809 during the Napoleonic Wars, Larra’s family left Spain and returned when he was nine. He became interested in politics and sided with the liberals. He married young, but his great love was another man’s wife, Dolores Armijo, with whom he had a tumultuous relationship. He was elected to parliament in 1836, but a coup in 1837 annulled the results. He committed suicide at the age of 28. Larra’s fame rests on his journalism:
- Literary Articles: He offered commentary on publications and theatrical releases.
- Political Articles: He engaged with current events, attacking and defending government actions.
- Customs Articles: Characteristic of Romantic journalism, he described certain Spanish customs as picturesque and typical.
The Legends of Bécquer:
Bécquer is also the most important storyteller of Spanish Romanticism, known for his “Leyendas” (1871). These stories are traditional folktales with fantastical elements, supposedly occurring in real locations. They abound with ghosts and other supernatural creatures. The Romantic legend is a characteristic narrative form in which a literary author develops elements from folk legends, giving them a literary treatment, often in verse or prose.
Romantic Drama
Romantic drama features:
- A mixing of elements that neoclassicism deemed incompatible.
- Disregard for the Aristotelian unities of time, place, and action. Each act can take place in a different location, and years can pass between acts.
- Content that prioritizes emotional impact over moral messages.
The typical protagonist is a handsome, brave, Romantic knight.
Don Álvaro or the Force of Destiny:
The Duke of Rivas, born in Córdoba in 1791, fought in the Peninsular War and was later exiled to England for his liberal ideas. There, he became acquainted with Romanticism. Upon returning to Spain, he actively participated in politics as a minister and ambassador. He was also a major cultural figure in Madrid and died in 1865. Though a good poet, the Duke of Rivas is best remembered for his Romantic drama “Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino,” which premiered in 1835. It explores two themes: the inevitability of fate and the struggle between love and social conventions.
Don Juan Tenorio:
José Zorrilla was born in Valladolid in 1817. An admirer of Larra, he recited verses at his funeral that launched him to fame. He cultivated lyric poetry, legends, and drama. His ease of versification made him the most popular writer of his time, but he faced financial difficulties that forced him to seek his fortune in Paris and Mexico. He died in Madrid in 1893. In his most famous work, “Don Juan Tenorio” (1844), he offers his version of the legendary character previously portrayed by Tirso de Molina and others.