Spanish Rule in the Americas
Spanish Colonial Administration
Spanish administration in the Americas was exercised authoritatively either directly from the mainland (through institutions such as the Casa de Contratación, which received taxes collected in America and controlled the entry and exit of people and goods, and the Consejo de Indias), or through representatives of the metropolis in America (viceroys, governors, audiencias, and cabildos). Until the eighteenth century, there were two vice-royalties: New Spain and Peru. The viceroy held all powers. The Church in the Americas depended on the Spanish Crown for organizational matters. The Inquisition also appeared in Hispanic America.
Bourbon Reforms and Administration
During the reign of the Bourbon dynasty, two new vice-royalties were created: Nueva Granada and Río de la Plata. Officials responsible for tax collection and controlling the American rulers were the Intendants. The goal of the administration during this period was to defend Latin America from foreign attacks and prevent administrative corruption. Creoles (Spaniards born in America) were demanding greater participation in government, which would be the seed of future independence movements.
Colonial Trade System
American trade was a monopoly of Seville (later moved to Cádiz). In the late eighteenth century, free trade was allowed between the Indies and peninsular ports. Trips to America were organized through an efficient, heavily escorted fleet.
The Spanish Conquest of America
The conquest of America developed mainly during the reign of Charles V. Bartolomé de las Casas argued that the indigenous peoples should be treated fairly. When justifying the conquest, the Spanish claimed the need to expand the Catholic faith in America. The success of the conquest was based on the capitulación: the Crown delegated to an individual the right of conquest; this individual benefited from a large share of the loot in exchange for covering the costs.
Conquest of the Aztec Empire
Hernán Cortés undertook the conquest of the Aztec Empire. He left Cuba and founded Veracruz. After capturing Moctezuma, war began with the indigenous peoples. Cortés was assisted by indigenous peoples opposed to Aztec rule. Mexico was conquered in 1521, creating the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Subsequently, Yucatan, the center of Mayan civilization, was incorporated into the viceroyalty.
Conquest of the Inca Empire
Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of Peru. From Panama, he began the conquest of the Inca Empire to the south. After executing the Inca Atahualpa, he took Cuzco and founded Lima. The civil war with Almagro was bloody and resulted in the deaths of both. Peace ended with the creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Chile was conquered by Valdivia. Other expeditions led to the conquest of Florida, Colombia, Venezuela, and Argentina.
Society and Economy in Colonial America
In the Americas, land ownership belonged primarily to the Spanish. Indigenous peoples worked for them. The main economic activities were agriculture, livestock, and mining (especially silver). Industry was limited and focused on textiles. The Casa de Contratación in Seville controlled all trade to and from the Indies. Indigenous peoples underwent a rapid process of acculturation: religion, language, etc. Racial and cultural mixing (mestizaje) was intense.