Spanish Second Republic: The Reform Biennium (1931-1933)
The Reform Biennium (1931-1933)
Development
The newly formed government (1931-33) consisted of the politically inexperienced petty bourgeoisie, representing the unified democratic forces opposing the monarchy. This coalition included republicans, nationalists, and socialists. One of their first actions was drafting a new constitution to establish the new political regime. President and head of government, Alcalá Zamora, faced the challenge of addressing Spain’s problems. However, the government’s measures faced opposition, with some criticizing their speed, either too fast or too slow.
The Church
The government’s removal of the Church’s support aimed to create a secular regime. Their goal was to secularize social life, viewing the Church as an obstacle to modernization. Measures included enacting a two-year extinction of the clergy’s budget, regulating religious orders, and enacting laws for civil marriage and divorce, and banning religious orders from teaching, leading to school closures. These actions resulted in resistance, particularly from Cardinal Segura, and fueled ongoing conflict between the Church and the Republic, culminating in Cardinal Segura’s expulsion. Despite this, the Church maintained its influence, intervening politically through Acción Popular. This mobilization of Catholics contributed to the political resurgence of the Right. Anticlericalism manifested in street violence, with churches and convents burned. The government’s delayed response alienated many Catholics from the Republic.
The Military
Discontent within the military stemmed from their disdain for civil power, amplified by Primo de Rivera’s prior empowerment of the military. Dissatisfaction over salaries and promotions led Azaña to attempt modernizing the army, facing opposition from a sector led by Sanjurjo. The goal was to create a professional army serving the Republic. The “Law of Retirement of Officials” allowed generals and officers to retire with full pay if they refused to swear allegiance to the Republic. The Assault Guards, a city police force, were created with the intention of being a Republican force.
Agrarian Reform
Largo Caballero spearheaded agrarian reform, requiring landowners to prioritize local laborers. Landowners reacted by forming the National Association of Owners of Farms. The reform aimed to prevent rural insurrection by freezing hiring, establishing an 8-hour workday, and expropriating uncultivated large estates, with compensation. Estates owned by nobles involved in the Sanjurjo uprising were expropriated without compensation. The Institute of Agrarian Reform (IRA) oversaw implementation. The slow pace of reform disappointed farmers, who withdrew their support from the government, escalating conflict and influencing the left coalition against the CNT and landlords.
Labor and Social Issues
Strikes, driven by the radicalized CNT under FAI influence, aimed for revolution. High unemployment due to the 1929 crisis led Largo Caballero, as Minister of Labor, to implement measures like maximum work hours, mixed juries, agricultural accident laws, and strike regulations. Attempts to generalize social insurance were hampered by budget constraints. The UGT divided over the pace of reform, with Prieto favoring a slower approach and Caballero advocating for faster reform to counter the CNT’s progress. The anarchists also split between those rejecting any program and unionists willing to wait.
Regionalism
In Barcelona, Macià (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya) proclaimed the republic hours before Madrid. The government sent ministers to Catalonia, renaming the Catalan government the “Generalitat.” The Courts approved the Catalan Statute of Autonomy, granting Catalonia autonomous status within Spain, with its own president, parliament, and executive council (Generalitat), possessing legislative and executive powers over finance, economics, education, culture, transport, and communications. Tax administration, military, and foreign affairs were shared with the central government. Castilian and Catalan were declared co-official languages. In the Basque Country and Navarre, the regional issue was delayed due to disagreements among Basque political forces, with the PNV’s strong religious character complicating negotiations. Other regions initiated proceedings, but the outbreak of war halted progress.
Education and Culture
The government aimed to promote liberal, secular education and culture as a means of modernization. High illiteracy rates and lack of schooling for almost half of the children posed challenges. Projects were hampered by budget constraints. Despite this, a mixed, compulsory, and free school model was adopted, and higher education expanded. Mobile libraries, movie theaters, choirs, and lectures were introduced.
Conclusion
The reforms faced an unfavorable environment, hindering the Republic’s consolidation. Opposition began organizing. Rightists and royalists conspired with the army (Sanjurjo), leading to a 1932 uprising. In 1933, the clandestine right-wing anti-reform military organization EMU (Spanish Military Union) was formed. The Right organized rapidly, forming CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights), encompassing groups like the Cívicos, Alfonsinos, Carlists, and fascists, along with Lerroux’s Radicals. The extreme left, including anarchists, CNT, UGT, and communists, united against the slow pace of land reform. The Casas Viejas uprising in Cádiz discredited the government. The November 1933 elections resulted in victory for CEDA and the Right, and a defeat for the Left, ushering in the second phase of the Second Republic, known as the Radical-CEDA Biennium or the Rightist Biennium.