Spanish Social and Political Transformations in the Late 19th Century
The Rise of Socialism and Labor Movements
In the impoverished Andalusian countryside, revolutionary anarchism gained traction. Following the dissolution of the First International, Marx advocated for independent national action by Marxists in each country. After 1874, Socialists in Madrid reorganized around a core group of printers. The party’s initial program focused on three key objectives: abolishing class distinctions and emancipating workers, transforming private property into social or collective ownership, and achieving political power for the working class. The Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE), led by typographer Pablo Iglesias, emerged as a prominent force. Starting in 1890, Casas del Pueblo (People’s Houses) served as centers for doctrinal discussions, cultural activities, and worker training. The Cuban War of Independence further solidified the Socialist position due to their opposition to the war and military service discrimination. It wasn’t until 1910 that Pablo Iglesias became the first Socialist deputy in the Congress of Deputies.
Catholic Trade Unionism
At the turn of the century, workers and laborers found it challenging to reconcile Christianity with social reforms. A Catholic union, chaired by a Conservative senator and several nobles, gained some traction among farmers in Castile.
Regionalism and Nationalism
Several factors contributed to the rise of regionalism and nationalism:
- 19th-century Spanish Liberalism, both moderate and progressive, centered on a nation-state concept. Only certain factions, like the Carlists and federalist republicans, envisioned Spain as a union of territories retaining their medieval privileges.
- The liberal state’s efforts to modernize society were weak.
- The political system, controlled by conservatives, created a centralized regime that benefited them.
- The Spanish bourgeois state lacked a unified national bourgeoisie; instead, distinct regional bourgeoisies existed.
Catalan Nationalism
Catalan nationalism originated in La Renaixença, a cultural movement encompassing all intellectual fields in Catalonia, with a focus on the Catalan language. Some advocated for federalism, while others defended Catalan political jurisdictions. Prat de la Riba, who favored a multinational concept of Spain, merged two branches of the Unió Catalanista in 1891, leading to the Assembly of Manresa in 1892. This primarily bourgeois movement proposed a federal system granting regions self-governance and their own institutions.
Basque Nationalism
Basque nationalism arose from a shared defense of traditional fueros (regional privileges). Its base consisted mainly of clergy, peasantry, and the petty bourgeoisie. Sabino Arana, building on fuerista traditions, argued that this “different” people (distinct in race and language) should regain full sovereignty, implying independence. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), founded on July 31, 1895, held anti-Spanish sentiments and aimed to restore traditional laws. The urban and industrial bourgeoisie eventually gained control of the PNV, shifting its strategy towards autonomy.
Other Regionalist and Nationalist Movements
In Galicia, regionalism stemmed from the resurgence of the Galician language (Rexurdimento) and federalist movements. The Galician Regional League formed in 1890. Less organized movements also emerged in Andalusia and Valencia. Blas Infante considered 1873, the start of the Federal Republic, as the beginning of Andalusian consciousness. The Federalist Andalusian Constitution, proclaimed in Antequera in 1883, called for a sovereign and autonomous Andalusia.
The Decline of the Colonial Empire: Cuba and the Philippines
The second half of the 19th century witnessed the beginning of the separation of Cuba and the Philippines from Spain. Cuba and Puerto Rico, located near the United States, had distinct colonial characteristics. Their export-oriented agriculture contributed significantly to the Spanish economy. In contrast, the Spanish population and invested capital in the Philippines were less substantial.
Insurrections in Cuba began in 1868, with movements advocating for both the abolition of slavery and political autonomy. The Ten Years’ War ended in 1878 with the Pact of Zanjón, where General Martínez Campos promised to pursue self-government for Cuba, but only formal abolition of slavery was achieved.
Several factors led to the colonial conflict:
- The growth of the independence movement
- Missteps by Spain
- U.S. support
- The U.S. Tariff Act of 1891
Revolt erupted in Cuba in February 1895. The Liberal government sent General Martínez Campos, whose mediation failed. The new government then dispatched General Weyler, who regained much of the island, forcing the rebels into the mountains. Despite Spanish military superiority, the guerrillas dominated the countryside. Cánovas was assassinated in August 1897, and Sagasta attempted a new autonomy plan. The United States seized the opportunity to strengthen its control over the Caribbean and Central America, declaring war on Spain.
Simultaneously, an insurrection unfolded in the Philippines, fueled by discontent with the Spanish administration and the excessive power of religious orders. In the Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898), Spain relinquished Cuba, and ceded the Philippines and Puerto Rico to the United States.