Spanish Society & Economy (1875-1931): Growth, Social Change, and Labor
Society and Economy During the Restoration (1875-1931)
Population Growth and Migration
The Spanish population grew slowly but steadily. The mainland coastal provinces experienced the greatest population growth due to declining mortality rates, although the birth rate remained lower. Life expectancy increased from 35 in 1900 to 50 in 1930, thanks to economic changes, improved public health and hygiene, and more abundant food supplies. Rural populations grew, but increased unemployment led many peasants to migrate internally to cities like Madrid, Barcelona, and Bilbao, as well as externally to the Americas. Low wages and limited arable land were the primary drivers. Internal migrations swelled cities; Madrid and Barcelona each surpassed 1 million inhabitants by 1930. Other areas, such as Sabadell, Barakaldo, and Mieres, became magnets due to their industrial and mining centers.
Social and Economic Structures
Agriculture
Agricultural production faced challenges. Cereal cultivation yields in 1930 were among the lowest in Europe, highlighting Spain’s agricultural backwardness. The distribution of land ownership played a significant role. In regions like Andalusia and Extremadura, latifundios (large estates) hindered modernization due to owners’ reliance on low wages and abundant land, which generated sufficient profits despite inefficient practices. This left laborers in near-subsistence conditions with little hope for improvement. The stark contrast in living standards between wealthy landowners and landless peasants fueled social conflict and peasant protests demanding agrarian reform and land ownership access.
In northern areas with smallholdings, like Galicia, the situation was somewhat better, though small plot sizes and poor land quality limited production and often forced emigration. Despite these general challenges, crops like olives, citrus fruits, and vines thrived, particularly in Catalonia. These benefited from technical improvements, including chemical fertilizers, irrigation, and the adoption of machinery. Manufacturing sectors like furniture and ceramics also emerged.
The Orange and Sugar Beet: These crops became particularly important.
Industry
Compared to Europe, industrialization in Spain was localized, slow, unplanned, and lacked a robust domestic market. Mining remained largely controlled by foreign companies. Industrial activity concentrated in three main regions:
- Catalonia: Continued development of the textile industry alongside new sectors like machinery (land and sea, including locomotives and ship engines), automobiles (Hispano-Suiza), chemicals (Cros), and energy (Catalan Gas Company and Canadian Electric).
- Vizcaya (Biscay): Rich iron mines fueled capital accumulation and the creation of banks (Banco de Bilbao, Banco de Vizcaya) and steel companies like Altos Hornos de Vizcaya (1902). Shipyards like Nervión and Euskalduna also flourished. State protectionism and government orders bolstered Basque industry, leading to over 1 million tons of steel production by 1930.
- Madrid: As the capital, Madrid attracted headquarters of major Spanish companies and fostered light industries catering to local consumption.
New energy sources like oil and electricity furthered industrial development. Reservoir construction enabled electrification of cities and transformed transportation (railways and roads).
Social Change
The Restoration era saw a shift in social stratification. The nobility sought to engage in business, while the bourgeoisie aspired to noble status. Traders and speculators enriched themselves during World War I. Madrid, Catalonia, and the Basque Country became centers of wealth. Employer associations emerged to defend economic interests. A growing middle class in cities, including a small bourgeois segment, debated between monarchy and republic.
Workers faced harsh conditions, leading to organized labor movements challenging the established system. Social legislation began to emerge: Sunday rest in 1904, the National Welfare Institute (insurance and pensions) in 1909, a ban on night work for women in 1912, and the 8-hour workday in 1919. Agricultural laborers, however, lacked such protections and endured extreme poverty, making them receptive to anarchist and revolutionary movements.
Women’s status remained subordinate to men. Work outside the home, though common in fields, factories, and workshops, was discouraged unless supplementing a husband’s income. Women received lower pay and still bore the burden of domestic work. Progress began in the early 20th century, with women gaining access to public and political spheres.
Capitalism and the Labor Movement in Asturias
In Asturias, the end of absolutism coincided with foreign investment in mining, leading to the creation of companies like The Royal Society of Coal Mine. Foundries and steel mills opened in Mieres and Trubia, and the Langreo-Gijón railway was built. New technologies like Bessemer converters and combustion engines marked the arrival of the Second Industrial Revolution. Larger firms with bank capital and strong interconnections emerged, characterizing “financial capitalism.” Banks like Banco de Gijón and Banco de Comercio e Industria were established. The León-Gijón railway, completed in 1884, proved crucial for exporting Asturian products but required substantial funding and technology.
Key Asturian companies included:
- Santa Bárbara – Industrial Society
- Mieres Factory
- Fábrica de Mieres
- Hard Felguera
These steel and mining companies often operated under trusts managed by Restoration governments and Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship. Asturian steel, however, struggled to compete with Basque production, and mining required government support to remain viable.
The Asturian labor movement leaned towards socialism, centered in Gijón and later expanding to Mieres and Sama. Anarchism, while less prominent, had some presence in Gijón and Sama, with Eleuterio Quintanilla as a key figure. The Communist Party emerged from a PSOE split in 1921, but wouldn’t gain significant traction in Asturias until the 1934 revolution.
The dominant union was SOMA (Socialist), founded in 1910. Asturias became a region with strong social and political consciousness. The 1906 “Huelgona” mining strike, though unsuccessful, led to SOMA’s creation. Manuel Llaneza served as general secretary until his death in 1931. SOMA engaged in strikes, notably in 1912 and 1917, achieving gains like a minimum wage for miners and a 7-hour workday. During Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, SOMA initially cooperated with employer committees but later hardened its stance, joining anti-dictatorship movements with the PSOE in 1930.