Spanish Transition: Rise of Opposition & End of Franco’s Regime
Opposition to Franco’s Regime
Opposition to Franco’s regime grew within Spain and across Europe. Democratic nations rejected Francoism, while within Spain, new opposition forces emerged. These were not primarily Republican, but rather parties advocating for democracy. Anarchists played a minimal role, and Republicans had limited representation. However, the ERC held significant influence, and the PCE, backed by the USSR, was paramount. In Catalonia, the PSUC gained traction. Right-wing opposition also existed, including Liberal, Monarchist, and Catalan nationalist parties like CDC and UDC, which formed CIU. The PSOE also presented opposition, though not as forcefully initially.
Violent Opposition
In 1959, a group of young Basques formed ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna), advocating for independence and socialism, with the former dominating their ideology. ETA’s early actions included attempted train derailments. In 1968, ETA committed its first murder, killing a Basque police commissioner. This marked the beginning of deadly attacks, leading to increased regime pressure on the Basque Country. Other leftist groups, FRAP and GRAPO, also emerged.
Non-Violent Opposition
Workers, students, and members of the clergy formed the core of non-violent opposition to Franco.
Workers
Industrial areas became centers of protest, with strikes proliferating. In 1962, the CCOO trade union was founded by Marcelino Camacho, with support from the PSOE and UGT. This “entryism” strategy involved infiltrating the vertical unions to gain legal protection and influence from within.
Students
University students became increasingly anti-Francoist, with frequent riots disrupting classes. Professors often granted mass approvals due to the disruptions. In 1966, the SDEUB union was formed at the University of Barcelona (UB), leading to the Caputxinada incident, where students meeting secretly at the Capuchin monastery in Sarrià were arrested.
Clergy
The Spanish Church began to shift its stance, with figures like Cardinal Tarancón supporting change. The liberalizing influence of the Second Vatican Council (1963) facilitated this shift. The Church provided support and meeting spaces for the opposition.
Catalonia
The Nova Cançó movement saw singers creating anti-Francoist songs that gained popularity.
The Assembly of Catalonia (1971)
This marked a significant step in the Catalan political struggle against Franco.
The Late Franco Era (1973-1975)
In 1973, Franco appointed Luis Carrero Blanco as head of government. ETA assassinated him months later, weakening the regime. Carlos Arias Navarro, his successor, adopted a more open approach, including the Law of Associations (1974), which allowed for the formation of political parties. This apertura aimed to prevent the regime’s collapse. However, the execution of five people, including Salvador Puig Antich, highlighted the continuing repression. Franco’s health deteriorated.
Economic Crisis of 1973
The oil crisis quadrupled oil prices, leading to inflation and rising costs. Demand decreased, companies struggled, and unemployment rose. The Arias Navarro government subsidized gasoline prices, depleting reserves. This crisis impacted Spain more severely than other countries.
Marcha Verde (1975)
In October 1975, King Hassan II of Morocco initiated the Green March to claim Western Sahara. Spain mined the border and then negotiated, resulting in the 1976 Treaty of Madrid, which ceded Western Sahara to Morocco. The Polisario Front, the Sahrawi independence movement, fought Morocco but ultimately retreated to Tindouf.
Franco’s Death
Franco died on November 20, 1975.