Spanish Unions, Business Organizations, and Political Culture
The General Union of Workers (UGT) and Workers’ Commissions (CCOO) have been the two dominant organizations in Spanish union activity for the last 25 years. Their role was enhanced by the support received from public authorities. Since the late 1980s, they have maintained what they call trade union unity, forming a homogeneous block in relation to successive governments and employers. However, their public presence as social actors is disproportionate to their relatively small degree of rootedness in society (the lowest level of membership in Europe). This has not prevented them from actively participating in negotiation processes, such as advisory bodies and representing workers.
Other trade unions, such as USO and CNT, have played a minor role, with internal conflicts and divisions eroding their support. Other organizations compete with the two hegemonic unions within specific territorial areas (ELA-STV in the Basque Country) or sectors (CSIF).
The Spanish Confederation of Business Organizations (CEOE) has been the dominant organization representing business interests since 1978, encompassing over 200 organizations and associations at both territorial and sectoral levels. The CEOE’s relationship with businesses is indirect, with member organizations maintaining ties with business partners. It has been present in various socio-labor processes and advisory bodies. Other business organizations, such as CEPYME, have not achieved the same prominence. The Chambers of Commerce and Industry, as well as the Circle of Entrepreneurs (Madrid) and Economics (Barcelona), also play a role, although their presence has eroded the hegemony of the CEOE.
Political Culture and Citizen Participation
Political Culture
The attitudes and orientations of Spaniards toward their political system are conditioned by several factors: 200 years without democracy, civil strife and violence, a long authoritarian regime, and a peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy through treaties between political leaders, excluding the population. These factors have resulted in citizens expressing moderate political attitudes, far removed from those prevalent in the past.
The democratic political system enjoys broad and stable support from the majority of Spaniards (more than 85%), giving it a high level of legitimacy. However, the operation of the system does not provoke as much support, with most Spaniards feeling less satisfied than other Europeans.
Spanish citizen attitudes toward the political system are characterized by disinterest, apathy, distrust, ignorance, disaffection, and cynicism. They perceive their problems as distant, running away from them and without allowing them to influence their operation, which directed them away from public affairs, not engaging or participating in the political process, which actually operates just ignorant. However, those attitudes that are critical to the daily functioning of the political system and the ruling elite do not seem to endanger the support of the democratic political system is deeply legitimated by a diffuse but strong consensus that appears to be independent of the effective operation democratic political and efficiency problems that arise.
Electoral Systems
Given the different levels of government in Spain (national, regional, and local, as well as European), different electoral systems are used to choose the respective assemblies. However, all respond basically two models: a majoritarian system (for Senate) and a proportional (for others).
The Senate is elected through a majoritarian system. In each constituency (province), four senators are elected using a majority formula and open list candidates (three candidates are chosen).