Spanish War of Independence: A Nation’s Struggle
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
A Nation’s Struggle Against French Invasion
The Spanish War of Independence, a war of national liberation against French invaders, was a complex phenomenon with international, civil, and political dimensions.
International Conflict
The war began in 1792, involving England, Portugal, and Spain against France. The Duke of Wellington’s leadership of the English army proved decisive.
Civil War
The French invasion divided Spain:
- Francophiles: A minority supporting Joseph I, believing he would modernize Spain and prevent revolutionary excesses. They advocated for monarchy, opposed revolutionary advancements, and sought peaceful reforms. Their primary motivations were the good of the country.
- Patriotic Front: The majority resisted the French and recognized Ferdinand VII as king. This diverse group included:
- Enlightened figures like Jovellanos and Florida Blanca, who desired reforms under the returning king.
- Liberals, hoping for a revolution establishing a liberal parliamentary regime.
- Absolutists (nobility and clergy), seeking a return to the ancien régime, supported by popular classes defending land, religion, and king.
Political Crisis
Ferdinand VII’s absence and the provisional government’s collaboration with the invaders created a power vacuum. Juntas, revolutionary agencies, emerged as alternative political power. Initially local, they evolved into provincial bodies (13). The Supreme Central Junta, formed in Aranjuez and chaired by Floridablanca, coordinated war efforts and governed unoccupied areas. It later relocated to Seville and was replaced by a regency in Cadiz in 1810.
Guerrilla Warfare and Sieges
Facing a superior French force, the Spanish employed guerrilla warfare and sieges. Guerrillas, comprised of soldiers, civilians, and clergy, launched swift attacks with popular support. Notable leaders included Juan Martín Díez, el Empecinado, Francisco Espoz y Mina, and Esaias de Quirós. Sieges, like those in Zaragoza, Gerona, and Cadiz, aimed to exhaust the enemy and allow the rest of the country to resist.
Key Reforms
Amidst the conflict, reforms aimed at modernization included the Bayonne Constitution, the abolition of the Inquisition, the suppression of male religious orders, and the confiscation of property from opposing clergy and nobility.
Development and Phases of the War
1. Initial Resistance (May-November 1808)
Spontaneous resistance spread. The victory at Bailén (July 19, 1808) prevented French occupation of Andalusia, forcing their withdrawal and leaving them holding only the Basque Country, Navarre, and parts of Catalonia. This stage showcased strong Spanish leadership.
2. French Predominance (November 1808-July 1812)
Napoleon’s counterattack with the Grande Armée expelled the British and restored Joseph I in Madrid. Despite Napoleon’s return to Paris, his generals continued the occupation, facing resistance from the Spanish terrain and guerrillas. Zaragoza, Gerona, and Cadiz endured sieges. The British, under Wellington, retreated to Portugal after the Battle of Talavera (1809).
3. Anglo-Spanish Offensive (July 1812-December 1813)
Napoleon’s focus shifted to the Russian campaign, weakening his forces in Spain. Wellington’s victories at Badajoz, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Salamanca allowed him to occupy Madrid. Further French defeats at Vitoria and San Marcial (1813) led to their expulsion from Spain. The Treaty of Valençay (1813) restored Ferdinand VII and ended the war.
Consequences of the War
The war devastated Spain, causing widespread death, destruction, famine, and economic ruin. It also normalized violence as a means of resolving disputes, with guerrilla warfare becoming a tool for both liberals and absolutists throughout the 19th century.