Spanish War of Independence & American Colonial Independence
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
Causes of the War
The Spanish monarchy’s reaction against the French Revolution was to declare war on France from 1793-1795. From 1799, Manuel Godoy allied Spain with Great Britain to face Napoleon. He signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, but fear provoked the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808), forcing Godoy’s resignation and the abdication of King Carlos IV. Napoleon forced both abdications and appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain.
The War
On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose up against the French. A Supreme Central Junta was spontaneously created, along with other juntas in various cities. The war took a turn in 1812 when Napoleon’s Russian campaign forced him to move troops, weakening his forces in Spain. Wellington’s assistance was critical. The French were forced to leave Spain, and Fernando VII regained the crown, agreeing to withdraw his troops.
The Cortes of Cádiz
The juntas wanted legitimate representatives and reforms. In 1810, the Central Junta convened the Cortes of Cádiz to draft a constitution. The constitution reflected liberal principles: national sovereignty, division of powers, citizen rights, and male suffrage. The liberals who promoted the constitution wanted to apply its laws, while those nostalgic for the old regime wished for a return to the pre-1808 situation.
The Carlist Wars (1833-1843) and the Triumph of Liberalism
The Carlist Wars
Upon Fernando VII’s death, his daughter Isabella II was only three years old. Her mother, Maria Cristina, assumed regency. To defend Isabella’s throne, the regent sought liberal support, while Don Carlos, Fernando’s brother, challenged the succession. Social sectors nostalgic for the old regime supported the Carlists. Major Carlist uprisings occurred in the Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. The Isabelline side had the support of the court nobility and the middle and popular classes. The war lasted seven years (1833-1840), ending with the Vergara Agreement.
The Triumph of Liberalism
Maria Cristina formed a liberal government, but liberals were divided into moderates (favoring limited reforms) and progressives (seeking to dismantle the old regime). Progressives rose to power (1835-1837) under Mendizábal. They introduced a liberal constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system, culminating in the 1837 Constitution, which inaugurated a long period of constitutional monarchy.
The Regency of Espartero
In the 1837 elections, moderate conservatives tried to reverse the revolutionary process, prompting progressive uprisings. Maria Cristina’s support for the liberals provoked a confrontation with the progressives. Espartero was appointed regent. His liberal but authoritarian measures earned him opposition, and Isabella II was proclaimed queen.
Independence of the American Colonies (1808-1826)
Reasons for Independence
Several factors contributed to the independence movements. Enlightenment ideas and principles of freedom and equality spread. The success of the American Revolution inspired the Creoles. Creole discontent grew with the Spanish, who monopolized political positions and economic benefits. The Creoles saw Spain as hindering the American economy, imposing trade restrictions and heavy taxes.
The Collapse of the American Empire
The war in Spain led to the formation of juntas in the colonies, which soon sought self-rule. Creole members replaced Spanish officials and refused to accept the authority of the Supreme Central Junta. Key uprisings began in Venezuela and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
The Spread of the Insurrection
With the restoration of absolutism in Spain in 1814, Spanish troops initially restored colonial rule. However, the insurrection reignited in 1816. Generals San Martín and Bolívar achieved independence for Chile and Peru. Simón Bolívar founded Gran Colombia. Antonio José de Sucre emancipated Bolivia. Agustín de Iturbide led the rebellion achieving Mexican independence in 1821.
Problems of the New Republics
The new American republics fragmented into multiple states.