Spanish War of Independence: Causes, Battles, and Constitution
Spanish War of Independence
The year 1808 marked the beginning of the Spanish War of Independence, triggered by the entry of French troops into Spain and the subsequent widespread popular discontent. Napoleon’s ambition was to seize control of Spain and install his brother, Joseph I, as the new king. The existing power struggles between Charles IV and his son, Ferdinand VII, played into Napoleon’s hands, making his intervention easier.
At Bayonne, Napoleon successfully persuaded both Charles and Ferdinand to relinquish the throne to his brother, Joseph, who was then the King of Naples. Upon becoming King of Spain, Joseph I issued a charter outlining his powers. However, this new kingdom was not welcomed by the Spanish people. This, coupled with the relocation of the royal family to France, ignited a mutiny in Madrid on May 2, 1808, against the oppressive French rule. Document 1 details the harsh measures taken against the rioters in Madrid, as they were shot, sparking a general uprising throughout Spain. The masses, often guided by traditional ruling groups, spearheaded this revolt. These groups convened to coordinate resistance against the French.
Due to the French military’s superior strength, the Spanish were compelled to adopt guerrilla warfare tactics. This strategy involved harassing French troops by leveraging their knowledge of the terrain, avoiding direct, large-scale battles. The war against the French unfolded in three distinct stages:
Stages of the War
- First Stage: Characterized by the initial French occupation attempt and the subsequent popular uprising. A significant Spanish victory occurred at Bailén, where the French army was defeated, leading José I and his troops to retreat to Vitoria.
- Second Stage: Marked by a period of clear French dominance, as Napoleon personally led the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, overcoming heroic Spanish resistance to reach Madrid.
- Third Stage: Focused on the French withdrawal and the joint Hispanic-English offensive. Napoleon’s decision to divert troops from Spain for the Russian campaign created a vulnerability that the Spanish, with British support, exploited to ultimately achieve victory. Document 3 highlights the Spanish reliance on guerrilla warfare to confront the French.
The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812
Concurrent with the military conflict, the ruling elites increasingly recognized the need to convene a general assembly (Cortes) to ascertain the will of the nation and implement necessary reforms. Opinions diverged on the purpose of this assembly. Some sought to reinstate the traditional political system during the king’s absence, while others advocated for transformative changes and the establishment of a constitution based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers. This division gave rise to ideological differences between liberals and royalists.
The Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810 and enacted several significant decrees, including:
- The proclamation of national sovereignty and the separation of powers (1810).
- The abolition of feudal privileges.
- The establishment of freedom of the press without prior censorship.
- The suppression of the Inquisition, diminishing the Church’s control over society.
- The formation of councils.
The most notable achievement of the Cortes of Cádiz was the Constitution of 1812, also known as “La Pepa,” as referenced in Document 3. This constitution enshrined the fundamental principles of liberalism.
The Aftermath
Finally, it is important to note that liberals in France expected Ferdinand VII to recognize and uphold the constitution upon his return. However, upon his return in 1814, Ferdinand VII dissolved the Cortes, nullified its decrees, and forced many liberals into exile.