Spanish War of Independence: Causes, Conflicts, and Aftermath
The Seeds of Conflict: Godoy, Ferdinand, and Napoleon
Godoy was hated by the nobility for his plebeian origin, the Church for his attempts at secularization, those displaced from power by the Enlightenment, and especially Prince Ferdinand, who saw him as a danger to the throne.
This led to a smear campaign among the people. Both Godoy and Prince Ferdinand had tried to gain the friendship of Napoleon. To strangle British trade, Napoleon needed to neutralize Portugal, and this is how Spain came into his plans as a platform from which to attack that country.
By the Treaty of Fontainebleau of 1807, signed between Godoy and Napoleon, Spain allowed the passage of French troops to Portugal. But after the defeat of Portuguese troops, French troops continued to enter the peninsula, and fearing for the safety of Madrid, Godoy moved the royal family southward.
The Mutiny of Aranjuez and the Abdication of Bayonne
The Mutiny of Aranjuez (March 17, 1808) was a palace revolt that sought the dismissal of Godoy and the abdication of Charles IV in favor of his son. Charles IV, after being forced to abdicate in favor of his son, turned to Napoleon for help, and Ferdinand VII also asked for his protection. Napoleon arranged a meeting in Bayonne, which resulted in the “Abdication of Bayonne”: Charles IV abdicated in favor of Napoleon, and Ferdinand VII returned the throne to his father. Napoleon then made his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain.
The Constitution of Bayonne
Napoleon’s brother, Joseph, who had been King of Naples, offered the Spanish people a reformist program, giving them a new basic law: the Constitution of Bayonne, 1808. It was the first Spanish constitution (actually a charter), but it had no real effect due to the ongoing war. It was an authoritarian constitution, not liberal, but it represented a vast improvement over the old regime:
- It established the separation of powers.
- The state was confessional.
- It established courts with indirect election, a class character.
- It included a Bill of Rights and liberal reforms.
The Division of Spain: Pro-French vs. Patriots
Faced with Joseph I and the Constitution of Bayonne, the Spanish people were divided into two camps: Pro-French and Patriots.
The Uprising and the Formation of the Central Junta
Napoleon underestimated the forces that refused to accept the new situation, which were hidden under the guise of the crisis of the monarchy and the institutions of the Ancien Régime:
- The masses of people refused to accept the situation, remaining loyal to the monarchy and tradition. The role of the Church was critical because it felt threatened by the reforms that the French might carry out, imitating those implemented in France.
- Liberal groups saw the struggle against the invaders as an opportunity to bring forward a draft Liberal State.
On May 2, upon hearing the news of the “kidnapping” of the royal family, the people of Madrid rose up spontaneously, and despite the repression by Murat, the uprising spread throughout the country:
- Boards of defense and armament arose throughout the country. Although defending the throne of Ferdinand, by assuming sovereignty, they became revolutionary bodies.
- Traditional authorities remained impassive, but sometimes were forced to lead the uprising.
In August 1808, the Spanish victory at Bailén created the conditions for the Provincial Boards to form a Central Junta, headed by figures such as Floridablanca and Jovellanos, in the name of national sovereignty. The Cortes were convened to organize the country until the return of Ferdinand VII.
French Reaction and Guerrilla Warfare
These circumstances provoked a French reaction: Napoleon arrived with fresh troops, and the Spanish military inferiority became apparent. The Spanish offered resistance, resulting in:
- French control of most of the territory (except Cádiz).
- Guerrilla Warfare, a peculiar form of armed organization, which was organized in parties, with knowledge of the terrain and the support of the civilian population, allowed them to fend off the French regular army.
The End of the War
In this situation, with increasing harassment from British troops under Wellington, the end of the war came in 1813. The withdrawal of some French troops to the Russian front was enough for Joseph I to have to leave Madrid.