Spanish War of Independence: Political Evolution and the Cortes of Cádiz
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
Political Evolution
The political landscape of Spain during the War of Independence was shaped by a revolutionary process and a confrontation between patriots and pro-French factions. Within the patriot movement, there were further divisions between liberals and absolutists. The war had three main centers of action: the juntas, the guerrillas, and the Cortes.
The Juntas
Due to the power vacuum created by the French invasion, local juntas were formed in many areas. These local juntas eventually led to the formation of provincial juntas and ultimately the Central Junta. They embodied the popular will against the invading army. The juntas were composed of representatives from the previous authorities (e.g., captain-general, bishop) and individuals whose prestige was based on their resistance to the occupation. These included military personnel, journalists, writers, and lawyers, with the presidency often held by a representative of the old order. Despite the presence of figures from the old regime, the initiative often rested with more progressive sectors advocating for political and social reforms to organize the defense of the kingdom.
The Guerrillas
The guerrillas served as a channel for ordinary people to participate in the fight against the invaders. This phenomenon of popular resistance, which formed the basis of the new army, emerged spontaneously and was soon supported by the Central Junta. At its peak, there were sixteen major guerrilla groups and numerous smaller ones, totaling around 55,000 men fighting against the 70,000 regular soldiers of the French army. The social base of these guerrillas was primarily rural, and some groups engaged in banditry.
The Cortes
The Central Junta’s announcement of the Cortes marked the formalization of the revolution. Supporters of reform advocated for general elections based on indirect universal male suffrage and representation based on the nation rather than the traditional estates system. This triumph paved the way for significant changes driven by the Cortes of Cádiz.
Attitudes towards the French
During the French occupation, the Spanish people adopted two main attitudes towards the invading army and the new dynasty of Joseph I Bonaparte. The patriots defended the Bourbon monarchy and opposed the Napoleonic dynasty. However, two distinct positions emerged within the patriot movement. Some saw the invasion as an opportunity to reform the monarchy, embracing liberalism as their ideology. Other patriots were absolutists who supported the old order and viewed the French invasion as a justification for maintaining the existing system.
The pro-French faction was also diverse. Some individuals actively collaborated with the new dynasty, holding offices and receiving honors. Others adopted an ambiguous or opportunistic stance, motivated by cultural, political, or personal interests. The most notable work of this group was the Bayonne Statute of 1808. They faced harsh persecution under accusations of treason.
The Cortes of Cádiz (1810-1814)
The revolution that began alongside the war led to a call for general and special Cortes. This initiative originated from the Central Junta but was carried out by the Regency, which replaced the Central Junta.
Composition and Functioning
The election of deputies faced significant challenges due to the French occupation and the need to include representatives from America. Several viewpoints were represented among the deputies:
- A group that sought to maintain the absolutist political system.
- A group that aimed for a middle ground between the old regime and a constitutional model based on national sovereignty.
- The liberals who proposed a unicameral legislature representing national sovereignty and developing a constitution reflecting the changes brought about by the revolution.
The liberal position gained strength because many members could not attend the Cortes, and they were replaced by others present in Cádiz, a center of liberal thought. Alongside members of the old estates, there were representatives of the urban middle classes, state officials, and professionals involved in commercial activities. The clergy was the dominant group, followed by lawyers and officials. Despite common misconceptions, the Cortes of Cádiz did not represent a purely bourgeois liberal revolution, nor were the clergy and nobility entirely absolutist. Many of the reforms were proposed by clergymen, and officials saw the Cortes as an opportunity to reform the discredited monarchy. The military also played a significant role, which continued throughout the 19th century.
The Cortes met in Cádiz because it was easier to defend and free from French occupation. The atmosphere of a besieged city filled with refugees, combined with an active social life in cafes, newspaper stands, and the Cortes itself, encouraged the members who saw their legislative work as a chance to address Spain’s backwardness and inefficiency. Two main factions, the liberals and the absolutists (also called serviles), quickly emerged in the debates. After the expulsion of the French, the Cortes moved to Madrid in January 1814.