Spanish Wars of Independence and Civil War: Causes and Consequences
Causes of the Spanish Civil War: The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) stemmed from a failed military coup, a consequence of deep-seated contradictions within Spanish society. Political radicalization and ideological polarization between conservative oligarchs and reformist republicans created a volatile environment. The failure of the coup to eliminate all opposition prolonged the dictatorship.
The international context is crucial, with both sides receiving external support, and the rise of fascism playing a significant role. The war divided Spain into two: a conservative, rural Spain in the hands of the rebels, and a progressive, urban Spain loyal to the Republic. The war can be seen as a failure of democratic coexistence, escalating from extreme political polarization to armed conflict. The right’s refusal to accept a democratically elected government, and the popular front’s initiation of reforms, further fueled tensions.
The war was also a consequence of an archaic socio-economic system characterized by unequal wealth distribution, which generated significant social unrest. The failed military coup’s inability to swiftly seize major cities also contributed to the war’s outbreak. The assassination of prominent figures, such as Calvo Sotelo, by republican militants, and the subsequent retaliatory actions, served as a catalyst for the conflict.
The electoral victory of the Popular Front, whose supporters had lost ground to reactionary forces on the right, further destabilized the situation. Right-wing groups were willing to maintain contact with Germany, seeking potential support. While sectors of the army began plotting a coup, uncertainty remained about the nature of the resulting regime. General Sanjurjo, initially a key figure in the planned uprising, died in an accident, leading to General Mola taking command. The military rebellion began on July 17, 1936, in Melilla, spreading rapidly across the country with support from the African Army.
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814): King Charles IV’s reign (1788) was immediately challenged by the French Revolution (1789). Prime Minister Manuel Godoy’s foreign policy vacillated between appeasing France and confronting it. After the execution of Louis XVI in 1793, Spain declared war on France but was defeated. Facing Napoleon’s expansion, Spain signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso, economically isolating Britain. Spain suffered a devastating naval defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau allowed French troops to cross Spain to invade Portugal. However, the French occupation of strategic cities prompted the royal family’s move south, sparking fears of a full-scale invasion. The Mutiny of Aranjuez (March 18, 1808) forced Godoy’s dismissal and Charles IV’s abdication. The events of Bayonne saw Napoleon forcing Ferdinand VII and Charles IV to abdicate, installing his brother Joseph as King of Spain.
News of Ferdinand VII’s imprisonment ignited spontaneous uprisings in Madrid on May 2, 1808. Although brutally suppressed, this sparked widespread resistance across Spain, initiating the War of Independence. Popular resistance, coordinated by the Juntas of Armament and Defense, effectively hampered the French advance. These Juntas evolved, culminating in the Cortes of Cadiz, which established Spain’s first liberal constitution in 1812.
Support for the French came from Francophiles who saw Joseph I’s rule as a path to modernization and liberalism. Opposing factions included the nobility and the church (advocating absolutism), those favoring Ferdinand VII’s return (hoping for reforms), liberals (seeking to advance liberalism), and the general populace (resisting foreign invasion). Early Spanish victories at Bailén (1808) and in sieges like Zaragoza and Gerona were followed by Napoleon’s personal intervention with the Grande Armée. By 1810, most of Spain was conquered, except for Cádiz, defended by British and Portuguese forces, where the Central Junta had relocated. The French withdrawal of troops to Russia in 1812 shifted the balance of power. The Battle of Vitoria (1813) forced Joseph I’s retreat. The Treaty of Valençay (December 1813) restored Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne.
The war devastated Spain economically and demographically, ruining public finances. The exile of Francophiles and the looting of art works marked the conflict. Internationally, the power vacuum led to independence movements in Spanish America (1808-1825), resulting in the loss of the American colonies. In summary, the War of Independence was a response to French invasion, sparking popular resistance and initiating Spain’s liberal revolution, fostering a stronger sense of national identity and sovereignty, and establishing the country’s first constitutional experience.