St. Augustine: Philosophy, Faith, and History
Historical Context of St. Augustine
After Alexander the Great’s death, Hellenism emerged, leading to the decline of the Polis and the rise of Stoicism and Epicureanism. The concept of man changed from zoon politikon (a political animal within the city-state) to zoon koinonikos (a social animal of humanity), a citizen of the world. Individuals sought security and happiness. Consequently, moralist schools like Stoicism and Epicureanism (fundamentally important) arose, offering answers to the meaning of life.
Stoicism and Epicureanism
Stoicism is based on two foundations: the individual as the subject and the Logos, representing the Universal Logos (Universal Law). Being deterministic, it acknowledged the Universal Logos. In the moral sphere, Stoics believed that man is part of the universe, governed by the Universal Logos. They sought tranquility, practicing virtue for virtue’s sake.
Epicureans, from a moral standpoint, are considered Hedonists. They distinguished various kinds of pleasures: natural and necessary, natural but unnecessary, and unnatural and unnecessary. The first refers to basic sustenance, the second to a banquet, and the last to things like power and glory. Epicureans accepted the first, sometimes the second, and rejected the last entirely. They believed it was necessary to combat three fears: death, fate, and the gods.
Neoplatonism
Within Neoplatonism, Plotinus is a prominent figure, emerging after the school of Alexandria. He founded a school in Rome with a disciple and the Emperor’s wife. His doctrine, contained in the Enneads, is known to us through Porphyry. It is often described as negative theology. Plotinus speaks of the One, from which emanates Intelligence (Nous), the Soul of the World, and finally, Matter. The One is perfect; Intelligence emanates from the One, then the World Soul, and finally Matter. Each emanation is less perfect than its source, unlike a creator, which would be totally different.
Platonic and Neoplatonic Doctrines Affecting Christianity
Theology
St. Augustine maintains the Platonic division between the ideal and sensible worlds. In the sensible world, we find the footprints of God. He develops the concept of “participation” in relation to creation. The idea of the Good is unique, and everything else flows from it, supporting monotheism: there is only one God, one Good.
Anthropology
St. Augustine adopts Plato’s idea of the immortality of the soul. However, for Christianity, the soul is created. For St. Augustine, there is no fundamental opposition between reason and faith; rather, they assist each other. The problem of knowledge, for Augustine, is this: We are mutable beings, and he distinguishes between a lower understanding, through which we know reality and do science, and a higher understanding, through which we can know immutable truths (ideas of unity). We reach these truths through the culmination of contemplating transcendent ideas. This is the element of self-transcendence and will.
While he distinguishes reason from faith, he believes they can sometimes converge. True happiness, for Augustine, is the permanent good, found only in God. We must seek beyond what we have to find what makes us permanently happy.
Free Will and Evil
Augustine addresses the problem of freedom and evil. Freedom is the ability to make decisions, and choosing evil is a misuse of that freedom. It goes against right reason. The solution to the problem of good and evil is that evil has no inherent entity; it appears when good is absent.
History
St. Augustine addresses the problem of history. He views history as linear, searching for the meaning of events, as reflected in his work City of God. He sought a Christian interpretation of historical events. His conception of the Roman Empire was not idealized; he saw it as having both a spiritual and a temporal aspect.