St. Thomas Aquinas: Historical Context, Philosophy, and Theology
St. Thomas Aquinas
Belonged to the Dominican Order during the Middle Ages, a time when the Franciscans and Dominicans competed for influence in universities. The Dominicans followed Aristotelian philosophy and were more open to progressive thinking. St. Thomas was initially condemned but later canonized.
Historical Context
1. Marked by the coexistence of three cultures (Christian, Jewish, and Muslim), which provided cultural enrichment. It is important because it incorporates thoughts from Jewish thinkers like Maimonides and Muslim thinkers like Averroes, who introduced Aristotle to Europe.
2. The rise of Christianity as not only a religious but also a political force. When Muslims invaded Spain and parts of Southern and Central Europe, the idea emerged that Christians must unite to be stronger, mirroring the unity of Muslims.
3. Confrontation between the Pope and the Emperor. Unlike the Caliph, who held both political and religious power, this conflict led to a different conception of power, with the Church seeking political influence.
4. The era of feudalism. St. Thomas opposed feudalism, believing all human beings are equal.
Sociocultural Context
1. Development of cities and trade patterns, shifting power away from feudal lords and creating differences based on skills.
2. The birth of universities, which were like cities within cities, aiming for universal knowledge. Knowledge, previously confined to monasteries, spread throughout society. St. Thomas studied at the University of Paris.
3. Emergence of schools of translators, most notably in Toledo, which translated Muslim texts into Latin. This was crucial for reintroducing Aristotle’s philosophy to Europe via Arab and Jewish scholars.
4. Gothic art, whose emphasis on light and aspiration towards God reflected the philosophical trends of the time.
Philosophical Framework
The confrontation between Patristic (Platonic) and Scholastic (Aristotelian) thought. Patristics held that faith is above reason and the only path to true knowledge. Scholastics believed reason could provide knowledge about certain aspects of God, particularly His existence, through dialectics—the confrontation of arguments to find truth.
St. Thomas’s philosophy is Aristotelian, but he debated with Augustinians who defended Platonic philosophy. He also opposed radical Aristotelians at the University of Paris who supported the theory of double truth.
A. God: Relationship Between Faith and Reason
The Averroist thesis of double truth and the Augustinian doctrine of faith’s primacy over reason led Aquinas to consider the relationship between these two powers. Aquinas positioned himself between these extremes, rejecting both the complete subordination of reason to faith (as in Augustine) and the complete autonomy of reason. He argued that faith and reason are distinct paths to truth: reason ascends from sensory data to knowledge of God, while faith descends from God to the world through divine creation. Aquinas defined the limits of philosophy (reason) and theology (faith).
He posited a single truth accessible through both reason and faith, acknowledging a zone of confluence between them. Some truths exceed human reason, while others, the “preambles of faith,” can be reached by reason. Thomistic theology thus becomes a mixed science.
B. Philosophical Principles
Thomistic thought is rooted in Aristotle but incorporates Christian doctrine and other non-Aristotelian principles:
- Distinction between essence and existence: Essence is what a thing is (nature and form).
- This distinction exists in all beings except God, in whom essence and existence coincide; God’s essence is existence itself.
- Principle of participation: Beings other than God do not possess their own existence but participate in God’s existence, as He is the only being that is pure existence.
- Principle of causality: Existence is predicated of God and creatures in a similar manner; while God is pure existence, all other living things have life through Him.
- Hierarchy of being and perfection: The universe is hierarchical, with greater degrees of perfection found in beings closer to God.
C. Demonstration of the Existence of God
Aquinas moves from the idea of God to the idea of the world as His creation. Although his system is theological, he uses philosophical methods to demonstrate God’s existence, proceeding from creatures to their Creator. It is a circular system, moving from creatures to God and from God back to creatures.
Aquinas develops five ways to prove God’s existence:
- The argument from motion: A body in motion must have been put in motion by another.
- The argument from causation: Everything that is caused is caused by another.
- The argument from contingency: Creatures in nature are contingent (they may or may not exist).
- The argument from degrees of perfection: There must be a perfect standard by which imperfection is measured.
- The argument from teleology (design): The order and purpose in the world suggest a supreme intelligence.