St. Thomas Aquinas: Philosophy, Theology, and Influence
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Early Life and Education
St. Thomas Aquinas was born in Naples, Italy, a descendant of the Counts of Aquino and Chieti. He began his education at the Benedictine Monastery of Monte Cassino at the age of fourteen. He later pursued studies at the universities of Naples, Paris, and Cologne.
Dominican Order and Academic Career
In Naples, Aquinas joined the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) in 1245, facing opposition from his family who held him captive for a year. He eventually became a professor in Paris, Naples, and Rome. From 1269 onward, William of Moerbeke provided him with translations of Aristotle’s works.
Canonization and Influence
Aquinas was canonized in 1323. His writings significantly impacted the Catholic Church, replacing the Platonic-Augustinian interpretation with his own as the official doctrine. His work, comprising 117 cataloged works, includes:
- Systematic: Summa contra Gentiles and Summa Theologiae
- Research: Commentaries on Aristotle
- Doctrinal: Scripture commentaries and Collationes
- Teaching: Quaestiones Disputatae and Quodlibetales
- Booklets: De ente et essentia
Philosophy and Theology
Aristotelianism and Christian Thought
Aquinas adopted many Aristotelian concepts but adapted them to Christian theology. He distinguished between God the Creator (pure form and pure act) and created beings.
Reason and Faith
Aquinas believed that reason and faith have distinct domains but also intersect. He granted reason autonomy (an advancement from St. Augustine’s view) but acknowledged its limitations. In cases of conflict between reason and faith, faith serves as the ultimate criterion.
Anthropology
Aquinas applied Aristotle’s hylomorphism to human nature, stating that humans are composed of matter and form, both essential. He defended the immortality of the soul and its destiny to remain connected to the body, which will be resurrected at the end of time.
Epistemology
Aquinas’s epistemology stems from his anthropological perspective. The soul, being connected to the body, gains knowledge through the senses (inductive method). Experience leaves an imprint on memory and imagination, which the intellect then uses for abstraction and forming universal concepts.
Ontology
Aquinas addressed the theological problem of differentiating spiritual beings from God within the framework of hylomorphism. He argued that essence (what things are) exists in God as an idea, while existence (the fact that things are) depends on God’s will. Essence is potential, and existence is the actualization of that potential through God’s will.
The Existence of God
Aquinas criticized Anselm’s ontological argument, disagreeing with the notion that we can know God’s essence without sensory experience. He argued that God’s existence can only be demonstrated through observable effects (a posteriori). He proposed five ways (the Five Ways or the cosmological argument) to demonstrate God’s existence, all based on the principle of causality and starting from observable phenomena.
Ethics and Natural Law
Aquinas’s ethics is grounded in the concept of Natural Law, which is humanity’s participation in the Eternal Law (God’s law). Humans, as God’s creation, can discover principles of conduct inspired by the Eternal Law through nature. These principles include self-preservation, procreation, care for offspring, pursuit of truth, and respect for law. Aquinas emphasized that positive law (human-made laws) should be a realization of Natural Law and not contradict its principles, highlighting the supremacy of the Church over the state.