St. Thomas Aquinas: Society, Governance, and Philosophy
K text being proposed for comment, is part of St. Thomas Aquinas, born in 1225 and died in 1274
St. Thomas Aquinas: Life and Context
Thomas Aquinas was born near Aquino in Castle Dimino Roccaseca. He was a monk and scholastic philosopher. St. Thomas was a representative of neo-Aristotelianism, but his importance lies in making a synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christianity, incorporating elements of Platonic philosophical problems. His philosophy focuses on the relationship between faith and reason as forms of knowledge, discussing which of them possesses the truth. He also discusses metaphysical, political, and ethical problems.
Aquinas’ “Monarchy” and Major Works
This text belongs to Book I of “On Kingship” (De Regno), which explores topics such as the goal of society, justice, forms of government, and state-church relations. Other major works included “Summa Theologica” and “Summa contra Gentiles”.
The Necessity of Society and Governance
The text’s theme centers on the human need to be governed and to live in society. St. Thomas explains that every person has an “end” that can be reached by several “paths” but requires a “leader.” He uses the analogy: “The ship would not reach the intended purpose if it were not directed by a competent helmsman.” Fundamentally, the text argues that human beings are designed to live in society for three reasons:
- Survival: Humans lack physical attributes for self-defense, unlike other beings equipped with teeth, horns, or speed.
- Learning: Humans acquire knowledge through tradition and social interaction.
- Natural Inclination: Nature does nothing in vain; thus, it endows us with the capacity for social life.
If human nature requires social living, governance is necessary. St. Thomas identifies three just forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, and polity/democracy) and three unjust forms (tyranny, oligarchy, and demagoguery). A just government aims at the common good, while an unjust government serves the ruler’s interests.
Law and Order
A society organized under any just government establishes positive law, enacted by humans to promote the common good and social peace. Positive law is related to natural law, which is part of the eternal law that governs all creation. The eternal law is God’s ordination of the universe. Divine law, revealed by God for salvation, is another form of law. St. Thomas’s Christian perspective contrasts with the Greeks, asserting that the universe was created by God, the only necessary being, while all other beings are contingent.
Metaphysics: Essence and Existence
Aquinas distinguishes between essence (what something is) and existence (whether something is). For example, a species might cease to exist (no more humans), but the essence of “rational animal” would remain. This adds to Aristotle’s hylomorphism (matter-form theory): matter is the physical substance (e.g., a cow’s body), and form is its specific structure and nature. He also introduces the concepts of act and potency: act is what something is, and potency is what it can become.
Theory of Knowledge
St. Thomas adopts Aristotle’s four-step process of knowledge:
- Begins with sensory experience, perceiving objects through the senses.
- The active intellect “extracts” the form from the mental image (abstraction).
- The passive intellect forms concepts.
- The individual recognizes the concept in the abstracted image.
Reason is a faculty of the human intellectual soul, one of three types of soul (intellectual, sensitive/appetitive, and vegetative), another Aristotelian concept adopted by Aquinas.
Faith and Reason: The Existence of God
As a Christian philosopher, St. Thomas engages in natural theology, rationally exploring the existence of God. He proposes five ways to demonstrate God’s existence:
- The argument from motion
- The argument from efficient cause
- The argument from contingency
- The argument from degrees of perfection
- The argument from cosmic order (teleological argument)
Each argument follows a similar structure: observing aspects of the world, applying principles of causality, and concluding that there must be an uncaused cause (God).
Historical Context
Understanding St. Thomas requires knowledge of the 13th century, the intellectual peak of the Middle Ages. Political stability, the rise of universities, and the rediscovery of Aristotle’s philosophy after the Arab conquests shaped the era. The spread of Aristotelianism challenged the traditional Augustinian view of faith and reason, leading to movements like Latin Averroism, which asserted reason’s autonomy.
Different Perspectives on Faith and Reason
- St. Augustine: Reason is subordinate to faith.
- St. Anselm: Faith precedes reason; reason cannot explain faith’s existence without it.
- St. Thomas Aquinas: God’s existence can be demonstrated through reason (the five ways).