Stance and Linking Adverbials in English: Usage and Examples

Posted on Dec 19, 2024 in Social sciences

Dangling (or Unattached) Participles

A participle should describe the grammatical subject of the main clause. For example, “When I was looking out the window, the day seemed very cloudy.” is correct. However, “Looking out the window, the day…” is incorrect because it implies that the day was looking out the window. A dangling participle occurs when the speaker intends to describe something other than the grammatical subject of the sentence. It is an -ing or -ed clause with an understood subject that differs from the subject in the main clause.

Nevertheless, there are a few contexts in which this rule seems more relaxed:

When the adverbial clause is a style adverbial and the implied subject is the speaker: “Honestly, it is an offense to publish the book.”
When the main clause has a non-referential it as subject: “When cleaning with these products, it is safer to wear a mask.”
When the whole main clause is the implied subject of the adverbial clause: “Unheard by the public, the manager had to speak for him.”
When passives are used in scientific writing: “Vacuuming is a good solution to avoid allergies.”

Stance Adverbials

Stance adverbials overtly mark a speaker’s or writer’s attitude to a clause or a comment about its content. They are divided into:

Epistemic Adverbials

These express the speaker’s judgments about the information in a proposition. They have six major areas of meaning:

Certainty and doubt: They indicate the speaker’s level of certainty or doubt about the proposition in the clause (e.g., certainly, definitely, maybe, probably).
Actuality and reality: They give the proposition the status of a real-life fact in contrast with what someone might have supposed (e.g., in fact, actually, really, truly, in actual fact).
Source of knowledge: They indicate the source of the claim reported in the proposition (e.g., evidently, apparently, reportedly, according to, as X reports).
Limitation: They imply that there are limits to the validity of the proposition (e.g., in most cases, generally, on the whole, mainly).
Viewpoint or perspective: They mark the view from which the proposition is claimed to be true (e.g., in our view, from our perspective).
Imprecision or hedge adverbs: (e.g., sort of, like, kind of).

Attitude Adverbials

These indicate the speaker’s attitude towards the propositions. Some of them express:

Expectation: (e.g., surprisingly, as you might expect, to my surprise, of course).
Evaluation: (e.g., unfortunately, wisely, ironically).
Importance: (e.g., significantly, even more importantly).

Style Adverbials

These comment on the manner of conveying the message (e.g., honestly, frankly, openly). Most of the time, these adverbials can be glossed (explained) as “I am being X when I say…”. Finite clauses are sometimes used as style adverbials, often with the subordinator if, especially when the speakers view themselves as speaking in a way that might cause offense: to tell you the truth, generally speaking, literally.

Ambiguity with Other Adverbial Classes

Stance Adverbial vs. Circumstance Adverbial or Degree Modifier: Especially in initial or final positions, the adverb really conveys the meaning of “in reality” or “in truth”: “He is not supposed to be here, really.” In contrast, in medial position, the meaning is not so clear, and it could be interpreted as intensifying the adjective or verb, with more or less the same meaning as very much: “I really like that dress.” / “It’s a really fantastic dress.” The same happens with largely and mainly, which can be interpreted as “to a great extent” or “usually,” as well as being stance adverbials, limiting the truth of the propositions: “It is normally used for putting in the soup.” / “The problem is not mainly that one.”
Stance Adverbial vs. Linking Adverbial: Some stance adverbials can also have a connecting function, e.g., in fact: “(…) in fact, there were many people” (reality) / “(…) in fact, I’ve never been there” (reinforcing what has previously been said).
Stance Adverbial vs. Discourse Marker: This division is not always clear, e.g., “They said, like, that they would see about it.”
Other Discourse Functions of Stance Adverbials: They have a cohesive function; they introduce a reinforcement or summary of a previous statement (in fact, in brief, in a word). They can show shared knowledge (no doubt, of course), soften a disagreement (really, truly, actually) or a suggestion (perhaps, maybe), as well as emphasize enthusiasm (definitely, absolutely, certainly), e.g., “I absolutely love it.”

Linking Adverbials

Linking adverbials are used to clarify the connection between two units of discourse. There are six major categories:

Enumeration and addition: Enumeration linking adverbials can be used to list pieces of information or to signal the addition of items to a list (firstly, secondly, finally, and some prepositional phrases such as for one thing, for another). Addition adverbials serve to indicate that one item is being added to previous ones (similarly, moreover, in addition, furthermore, also).
Summation: These adverbials indicate that a unit of discourse finishes or sums up points made in the preceding discourse (in sum, in conclusion, to summarize, to conclude).
Apposition: These show that the piece of text that follows is equivalent to or included in the point referred to in the previous discourse. These adverbials (which is to say, for instance, e.g., namely, i.e., in other words, that is to say) can introduce the second unit, reformulating it.
Result/inference: These point out that the second unit of discourse states the results or consequences of the preceding discourse (consequently, therefore, so (not always clear), thus). Other adverbials mark one idea as an inferred result of another (hence, therefore, then).
Contrast/concession: These mark contrast or conflict between the information given in the discourse units (in contrast, alternatively). Others express that what is said in the following discourse expresses the contrary to the expectation raised by the preceding clause (though, anyway). Other typical contrast adverbials: on the other hand, instead, on the contrary. Concession adverbials: nevertheless, in any case, after all, yet, besides, anyhow.
Transition: These mark the insertion of an item that does not directly follow the previous discourse (by the way, incidentally, now, meanwhile).

Frequency of Semantic Categories and Their Position

In academic prose, we find the most common use of linking adverbials. The most common position for them is the initial one. Therefore, thus, and however normally occur in medial positions when they are not in initial positions, frequently after the subject or operator, e.g., “Babies need to sleep a lot; therefore, they must…”

The Most Common Linking Adverbials in Conversation and Academic Prose

So: Often used in stories in conversation, it makes clear how one story follows another, e.g., “He lost the train, so he arrived late.” “The boss found out, so he got into trouble.” It can only happen in the initial position.
Then: When one speaker adds a presumption based on another speaker’s utterance, then is normally used. In British English, it is sometimes used as a part of a question as a confirmation of the inference that has been made. It is also used with commands or suggestions to another participant of the conversation, e.g., “I’m really sweaty.” “Go to have a shower then.”
Though: This is used to mark contrast between one clause and another. In any case, its use is much softer than a marker of direct contrast, such as but or however. E.g., A- “I like that dress.” B- “I don’t like the flowers on it, though.”
Anyway: This is used when a speaker does not consider the preceding discourse, considering it less important or irrelevant, e.g., “I have not been invited to the party. Anyway, I don’t think I’ll miss much.”