Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism: Ancient Philosophies
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium. It states that the universe is governed by a body and Logos of God (a notion that the Stoics developed from Heraclitus). The soul is identified with this divine principle, as part of a whole to which it belongs. This logos (reason or universal) orders all things: everything comes from and according to him. Through him, the world is a cosmos (a term which in Greek means “harmony”).
Stoicism proposes to live according to the rational law of nature and advises indifference (apathy) towards all that is external to oneself. The wise man obeys the natural law, recognizing himself as a cog in the great order and purpose of the universe, and thus maintains calm before tragedies and good things.
Stoicism flourished in Greece with Cleanthes of Assos and Chrysippus, being carried to Rome in the year 155 BC by Diogenes of Babylon. Followers included Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, Epictetus, and Lucan.
From this emerge two ethical consequences: one should “live according to nature”: nature being essentially the logos, the maximum limitation is to live according to reason. Reason being that through which man becomes free and happy, the wise man does not perceive his real well-being in external objects, but rather in using these objects through wisdom, which does not let itself be enslaved by passions and external things.
The last season of Stoicism, or the Roman period, is characterized by its tendency towards practice and religion, heavily emphasized as is the case in speeches and in Enchiridion by Epictetus and the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius.
Stoic: It is said of him that shows fortitude and austerity. Impassive, imperturbable; insensible.
The Stoic school was founded in the third century BC by Zeno of Citium (from Cittium). It advocated indifference to the pain of mind as opposed to the evils and hardships of life. His disciples gathered under porches (stoa in Greek) located in temples, markets, and gymnasiums. It was strongly influenced by the Cynic and Epicurean doctrines, besides the clear influence of Socrates.
Epicureanism
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy taught by Epicurus of Samos, an Athenian philosopher of the fourth century BC, and followed later by other philosophers, called Epicureans.
Epicurus proposed a life of continual pleasure as the key to happiness, which was the goal of his moral teachings. For Epicurus, the presence of pleasure was synonymous with no pain or any type of distress: hunger, sexual abstention, or boredom. Without it, mankind could understand the mortification of the flesh for the elevation of the spirit, based on ataraxia, demonstrating that pleasure is taken in intellectual enjoyment.
The purpose of Epicurus’ philosophy was not theoretical but very practical. It mainly sought to find the tranquility necessary for a happy and pleasant life, in which the fears before the destination, the gods, or death were definitely eliminated. To do so, it was based on a theory of knowledge that was empiricist, atomistic in a physical sense, and hedonistic in an ethical sense.
In the old Mediterranean world, Epicurean philosophy gained many followers. It was a very prominent school of thought for a period of seven centuries after the death of the founder. Subsequently, it was almost relegated to oblivion due to the early Middle Ages, a period in which most of the writings of this Greek philosopher were lost.
The idea that Epicurus had was that to be happy, man needed three things: Freedom, Friendship, and Time to meditate. In Greece, there was an ancient city in which, on a wall in front of a market, the whole philosophy of happiness of Epicurus was written, trying to educate people that buying would not make them happier as they believed.
Skepticism
Skepticism (derived from the Greek verb ?????????, transl. sképtomai, “looking from a distance,” “examine,” “watch”) is the doctrine that says you cannot get any certainty about the truth, which implies an intellectual condition of doubt and the admission of permanent incapacity for understanding phenomena of metaphysical, religious or even physical reality. The term originated from the name commonly given to a philosophical current originating in ancient Greece.
Skepticism is usually divided into two streams:
- Philosophical Skepticism – a philosophical stance in which people choose to examine critically whether the knowledge and perception that they have are actually true, and if anyone can tell whether or not to have absolutely true knowledge.
- Scientific Skepticism – a scientific attitude and practice, in which someone questions the veracity of claims, and seeks to prove or disprove it using the scientific method.
Philosophical Skepticism
Philosophical skepticism originated from Greek philosophy. One of his first proposals was made by Pyrrho of Elis (360-275 BC) who traveled to India in the campaigns of Alexander the Great to further their studies, and proposed the adoption of “practical” skepticism (see also Pyrrhonism). Subsequently, the “New Academy” of Arcesilaus (315-241 BC) and Carneades (213-129 BC) developed more theoretical perspectives that refuted conceptions of absolute truth and falsehood. Carneades criticized the views of dogmatists, especially supporters of Stoicism, arguing that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. Sextus Empiricus (200 AD), the highest authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of empiricism in its basis for asserting knowledge.
That is, philosophical skepticism is to seek knowledge, not content with ignorance currently provided by public means, through discourse. Opposed to dogmatism, it is possible to know the truth.
Scientific Skepticism
Scientific skepticism is related to philosophical skepticism, but they are not identical. Many practitioners of scientific skepticism are not fans of classical philosophical skepticism. When critics of scientific controversies, alternative therapies, or paranormal claims are said to be skeptical, this refers only to the skeptical position adopted.
The term scientific skeptic is currently used to refer to a person who has a critical position in a given situation, usually by employing the principles of critical thinking and the scientific method (i.e., scientific skepticism) to check the validity of ideas. Skeptics view empirical evidence as important as it provides probably the best way to determine the validity of an idea.
Although skepticism involves the use of the scientific method and critical thinking, this does not necessarily mean that skeptics use these tools constantly. Skeptics are often confused with, or even denounced as, cynical.[1] However, valid skeptical criticism (as opposed to arbitrary or subjective doubts about an idea) stems from an objective and methodological test and is generally a consensus among skeptics. Note also that cynicism is usually taken as a point of view that keeps an unnecessarily negative attitude toward human motives and sincerity. Although the two positions are not mutually exclusive and skeptics may also be cynical, each represents a fundamentally different statement about the nature of the world.
Scientific skeptics also constantly receive accusations of having a “closed mind”[2] or inhibiting scientific progress due to their demands for scientifically valid evidence. The skeptics, in turn, argue that such criticisms are mostly from supporters of pseudoscientific disciplines, such as homeopathy, reiki, paranormal, and spiritualism,[2][3][4][5] whose views are not adopted or supported by mainstream science. According to Carl Sagan, a skeptical astronomer, “you should keep your mind open, but not so open that your brain falls out.”
The need for scientifically adequate evidence to support theories is most evident in the area of health, where using a technique without scientific assessment of its risks and benefits could lead to worsening of the illness, unnecessary spending, and abandonment of techniques proven effective. For this reason, in Brazil, it is prohibited for medical use of therapeutic practices not recognized by the scientific community.
Pseudo-Skepticism
The term pseudo-skepticism or pathological skepticism is used to denote forms of skepticism that deviate from objectivity. The analysis of the most popular term was conducted by Marcello Truzzi, in 1987, who developed the following concepts:
Since skepticism properly refers to doubt rather than denial – instead of discrediting belief – critics who take a negative stance instead of a position agnostic or neutral, but still call themselves “skeptics” are actually “pseudo-skeptics.”