Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism, and Anselm’s Ontological Argument
1. Stoicism
The cause of unhappiness lies not in external events, but within ourselves—not in facts, but in our interpretations. Stoics fear not death itself, but the idea of death. By accepting reality as it is, we can achieve happiness.
2. Epicureanism
Pleasure (hedone) is the beginning and end of a happy life. Epicurus distinguishes between katastematic and kinetic pleasures. Katastematic pleasure is the absence of physical and mental pain. Kinetic pleasures are sensations that don’t increase our baseline happiness but add variety.
The Tetrapharmakos
- Do not fear the gods.
- Do not fear death.
- Pain is brief.
- Happiness is attainable by focusing on past pleasures and avoiding pain.
Friendship and Happiness
Friendship is essential for happiness. While seemingly selfish, friendship transcends self-interest. True happiness requires the risks inherent in caring for others.
3. Skepticism
Skepticism is a philosophical orientation characterized by distrust of human knowledge. According to Pyrrho, true knowledge is unattainable. Our perceptions are subjective and unreliable. Suspending judgment leads to tranquility (ataraxia) and happiness.
4. Anselm’s Ontological Argument
St. Anselm sought to prove God’s existence through reason. His argument, also known as the ontological argument, suggests that God’s existence is inherent in the very idea of God. If we can conceive of a being greater than which nothing can be conceived, that being must exist in reality.
5. Descartes and the Instrument of Knowledge
Descartes believed reason is the primary instrument for acquiring knowledge. This innate human ability allows us to distinguish truth from falsehood. A proper method is crucial for the pursuit of knowledge.