The Heart, Blood Vessels, and Lymphatic Network Explained

Posted by on Jan 9, 2026 in Biology | 0 comments

The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is composed of the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood throughout the body.

Blood flow involves several stages: Deoxygenated (used) blood returns to the heart and is ejected to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood then returns to the heart and is ejected through the aorta to circulate throughout the body.

Related Physiological Functions

  • The kidneys chemically purify the blood.
  • The liver performs blood detoxification.
  • In the brain, the
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Fundamentals of Genetics, DNA and Biotechnology

Posted by on Jan 7, 2026 in Biology | 0 comments

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype: genetic constitution of an individual character or referring to a whole set of genes (e.g., AA, Aa).

Phenotype: external expression of the genotype. The phenotype is the property that presents in the individual (e.g., yellow, green).

Alleles: each of the variants of a gene. For each gene, the individual has a pair of alleles, which are commonly represented with a letter: A (dominant), a (recessive).

Heterozygous: an individual who carries two different alleles (e.g.,

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Human Anatomy: Systems, Chemistry, and Cell Biology

Posted by on Jan 7, 2026 in Biology | 0 comments

Organ Systems and Their Functions

SystemMajor Function
IntegumentaryProtects the body and regulates temperature (skin, hair, nails).
SkeletalSupports the body, stores minerals, and produces blood cells.
MuscularResponsible for movement and posture.
NervousFast communication and control of body responses.
EndocrineHormone secretion for internal regulation.
CardiovascularTransports nutrients, gases, and wastes (heart, blood vessels).
LymphaticImmune response and fluid balance (lymph nodes, spleen).
RespiratoryFacilitates
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Viral Infections: Persistence, Latency, and Immune Evasion

Posted by on Jan 7, 2026 in Biology | 0 comments

1. Defective-Interfering Particles and Persistent Infections

Defective-interfering (DI) particles compete with standard viruses for replication machinery and suppress productive infection. This decreases viral output, avoids complete cell destruction, and sustains infection at low intensity.

2. Viral Nucleic Acid Sensing by Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs)

Two PRR Classes Sensing Viral Nucleic Acids:

  • RIG-I–like Receptors (RLRs): Recognize viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) present in the cytoplasm.
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Essential Medical Terminology for Cardiac and Respiratory Care

Posted by on Jan 4, 2026 in Biology | 0 comments

Medical Terminology Reference

Cardiovascular System Terms

  • ADLs: Activities of Daily Living; such as feeding, dressing, bathing, and toileting.
  • Aorta: The main artery that carries blood away from the heart.
  • Atria (singular: atrium): The two smaller hollow cavities of the heart which receive blood into the heart.
  • Blood Pressure: The pressure of blood in the arteries.
  • Blood Vessel: A tubular channel that carries blood (e.g., artery).
  • Cardiac Cycle: Any of the events relating to the blood flow that occur from
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Biology and Psychology Essential Study Reference

Posted by on Jan 4, 2026 in Biology | 0 comments

Biology and Psychology Cheat Sheet

—–A4 Double-Sided Cheat Sheet Layout—–

Side 1: Biology

Features of Living Things

  • Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, and Nutrition (MRSGREN)

Hierarchy of Classification

  • Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species
  • Binomial Nomenclature: Genus (capitalized) + species (lowercase), italicized, e.g., Homo sapiens

Cells

  • Prokaryotic: No nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles.
  • Eukaryotic: Nucleus,
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