Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems Anatomy
The Human Respiratory System
Nostrils: Air Intake and Olfaction
Nostrils are lined by mucous membranes containing olfactory receptors for smell detection. These membranes appear red due to blood vessels (which help warm incoming air) or yellowish in the olfactory region.
Functions:
- Warms the air
- Moistens the throat
- Protects against infections with mucus
- Detects smells
Lungs: Structure and Mechanics
The lungs are housed within the ribcage.
Ribcage, Muscles, and Breathing
The ribcage consists of bones (ribs,
Read MoreInfectious Disease Control Methods and Transplantation Basics
Infectious Disease Control
Understanding the characteristics of infectious diseases and the nature of the agents that cause them is fundamental to prevention.
However, once a disease is declared, identifying the agent and making an early diagnosis are essential to implement the most appropriate treatment and, if necessary, isolation and reporting to the health authority.
Preventive Measures
Preventive measures to combat infectious diseases include:
- Disinfection of water supplies and wastewater treatment.
Energy Systems for Exercise Performance
Phosphagen System
Provides energy for very high-intensity, short-duration activities, and the initial phase of any activity. The most important substrates are ATP and Phosphocreatine.
ATP
ATP is hydrolyzed by the ATPase enzyme located in the myosin heads. This hydrolysis triggers the movement of actin, resulting in muscle contraction.
The energy released during hydrolysis in exercise is approximately 7300 calories (under specific temperature and pH conditions).
This energy is used for muscle work and
Read MorePostmortem Skin Findings: Discoloration, Bruising, Abrasions
Postmortem Body Surface Changes
Examining the body surface reveals various postmortem changes, including discoloration similar to bruising (pseudo-ecchymotic discoloration):
- Cyanotic Spots: These appear on the face and, more rarely, in the neck region in cases of death from acute cardiorespiratory failure.
- Livor Mortis (Cadaveric Lividity): These discolorations are linked to body position after death, forming only in dependent areas. They are not prominent, the blood is not extravasated outside vessels
Advances in Biology: Cells, Immunity, and Reproduction
Stem Cells and Differentiation
Stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate into any of the approximately 200 cell types that exist in the organism. Their differentiation into a specific cell type depends on chemical signals – substances that induce changes in gene expression, protein production, or other cellular processes. For example, they can become:
- Cardiac cells
- Retinal epithelial cells
- Pancreatic beta cells
Embryonic stem cells are obtained from blastocysts, a very early stage
Read MoreEnzymes, Carbohydrates, and Spectrophotometry: A Review
Enzymes: Proteinaceous Catalysts
Enzymes are proteinaceous substances involved in biochemical reactions. They are proteins formed from amino acids. When the number of amino acids is between -100 and +100, they are called polypeptides. The linear sequence of amino acids, known as the primary structure, is unique for each protein and dictates its function.
Enzymes can only bind to a specific substrate, forming a reversible enzyme-substrate complex. They are used as reagents in clinical chemistry because
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