Anatomy and Function of Digestive & Respiratory Systems
The Human and Avian Digestive System Anatomy
Pharynx: Swallowing and Lymphocyte Maturation
The Pharynx is a muscular tube that leads into the next portions of the digestive tract: the esophagus and trachea. The tonsils are used for the maturation of lymphocytes. Below the cartilaginous fold belonging to the larynx is the epiglottis, which covers the glottis during swallowing to prevent food from passing into the trachea. The medulla controls swallowing, including closing the nostrils by raising the
Read MoreBiotechnology Fundamentals: Genetics, Recombinant DNA, and Therapeutics
Biotechnology: Definitions and Core Concepts
Definition: Biotechnology uses living organisms or their products to solve problems or create useful items.
Historical and Modern Techniques
Historical Uses
- Fermentation
- Selective breeding
- Antibiotics
Modern Techniques
- Gene cloning
- Genetic engineering
- Recombinant DNA
- CRISPR-Cas (Gene Editing)
- Synthetic genomes
Disciplines Involved
- Biology
- Chemistry
- Physics
- Mathematics
- Computer science and Bioinformatics
- Engineering
Applications of Biotechnology
- Disease-resistant crops
- Golden
Comprehensive Biological Concepts: Immunity, Behavior, & Reproduction
The Biological Basis of Immunity
Innate Immunity
- Invertebrates: Exoskeleton, lysozyme, hemocytes, recognition proteins.
- Vertebrates: Skin and mucous membranes, phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), antimicrobial peptides, complement system, natural killer (NK) cells, interferons.
Inflammation and the Lymphatic System
- Triggered by injury or infection; involves mast cells releasing histamine and cytokines.
- Lymph nodes contain macrophages and dendritic cells for pathogen clearance
Fundamentals of Cell Biology and Human Organ Systems
Levels of Biological Organization
- Tissues
- Sets of specialized cells which have the same function and the same origin.
- Organs
- Structural and functional units of living beings.
- Organ Systems
- Sets of different organs which carry out functions that are independent from each other but coordinated.
- Organism
- The complete unit of the living organism.
Cell Structure and Organelles
- Cellular Membrane
- Consists of lipids and proteins. It surrounds the cell, separating it from its surroundings and allowing various substances
Soil Fertility Management: Chemical, Organic, and Biofertilizer Methods
Understanding Fertilizers and Soil Nutrients
A fertilizer is any natural or synthetic substance (solid, liquid, or gaseous) containing one or more plant nutrients (other than lime) that is applied to the soil or leaves to supply nutrients essential for the growth of plants. The following four main types of fertilizers are recognized:
- Chemical Fertilizers
- Organic Fertilizers or Manures
- Biofertilizers
- Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
Chemical Fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers are manures or mixtures
Read MoreBacterial Cell Structure, Components, and Growth Kinetics
Bacterial Cell Structure and Components
Cell Envelope
Plasma Membrane
The fundamental barrier defining the cell boundary.
Cell Wall
- Gram-Positive Wall (Gram +)
- Gram-Negative Wall (Gram -)
Organs of Locomotion and Adhesion
- Flagella: Used for motility.
- Pili or Fimbriae: Used for adhesion and conjugation.
Internal Components (Cytoplasm)
The cytoplasm is a gelatinous substance containing essential structures:
- Nucleoid
- Ribosomes
- Inclusion Bodies
External Components
- Capsule: A dense, organized layer.
- Glycocalyx: General