Viral Persistence, Latency, and Immune Evasion Mechanisms
Defective-Interfering Particles and Persistent Infection
1. How do defective-interfering (DI) particles contribute to persistent infections?
Defective-interfering (DI) particles are incomplete viruses that lack essential genes for full replication. They replicate only in the presence of a normal virus and compete with it for cellular resources. This reduces viral replication and cytopathic effects, allowing infected cells to survive and the virus to persist long-term.
Viral Nucleic Acid Sensing by
Read MoreEchinodermata Biology: Characteristics and Classification
General Characteristics of Phylum Echinodermata
Phylum Echinodermata (from Greek echinos = spiny; derma = skin) consists of exclusively marine animals known for their pentamerous radial symmetry and unique water-driven skeletal systems.
- Habitat: Entirely marine; found at all depths from the intertidal zone to the deep sea.
- Symmetry: Adults exhibit pentamerous radial symmetry (body parts arranged in fives), while larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
- Body Organization: Triploblastic, coelomate, and exhibit
Human Anatomy and Physiology: Key Systems, Fluids, and Processes
Nervous System
Nervous system: The nervous system is the most complex system of the human body, containing a vast network of nerve cells. It is the major controlling, coordinating, regulatory and communicating system of the body. The nervous system is the body’s command centre and the centre of all mental activities including thought, learning, and memory. It is also responsible for maintaining homeostasis.
Organization of the Nervous System
- Central Nervous System: Brain, Spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous
Molecular Biology Essentials: DNA Structure, Replication, and Protein Synthesis
1. DNA Structure
Double Helix: Twisted-ladder shape.
Nucleotide: Sugar (deoxyribose) + Phosphate + Nitrogenous base.
Bases: Purines (Adenine [A], Guanine [G]); Pyrimidines (Cytosine [C], Thymine [T]).
Pairing: A pairs with T (2 Hydrogen bonds), C pairs with G (3 Hydrogen bonds).
Chargaff’s Rule: A = T, and C = G.
Antiparallel Strands: Run in opposite directions (5’→3′ and 3’→5′).
Key Scientists
Griffith: Discovered the transforming factor.
Avery: Identified DNA as the transforming factor.
Chargaff:
Cell Division and Species Variation: Genetics Fundamentals
Reproductive Strategies
Reproductive Strategies
- Asexual Reproduction: A single parent organism produces offspring by making genetically identical copies of itself.
- Sexual Reproduction: Two parent organisms combine genetic material to produce similar but genetically unique offspring.
Asexual Reproduction
- Requires less energy.
- Needs only one parent.
- All organisms are able to reproduce, passing on 100% of their genetic material.
- One organism may begin an entire population.
- Offspring are exact replicas of the
Animal Phyla: Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida Characteristics
Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)
Phylum Coelenterata (also known as Cnidaria) consists of about 10,000 species of simple aquatic animals. The name “Coelenterata” refers to their single central body cavity (the coelenteron), while “Cnidaria” refers to their specialized stinging cells.
General characters
- Habitat: Primarily marine (e.g., corals, jellyfish), with a few freshwater forms like Hydra.
- Level of organization: Tissue grade of organization.
- Germ layers: Diploblastic — body wall made of two layers: