Human Body Systems: Nutrition, Digestion, and Respiration
Understanding Nutrition and Its Essentials
Nutrition is the set of processes by which an organism obtains the necessary material and energy to produce its own substances and perform vital functions. It is an involuntary process involving various systems.
Food refers to the substances consumed by living organisms to obtain necessary nutrients. While nutrition is an involuntary process, the act of consuming food is conscious and voluntary.
Types of Nutrients
- Inorganic Nutrients: These can come from both
Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn: Causes, Symptoms, and Management
Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn (TTN)
Anatomical Alterations of the Lungs in TTN
- Excessive bronchial secretions and incomplete absorption of pulmonary fetal fluid
- Air trapping and alveolar hyperinflation
- Decreased fluid removal by pulmonary lymphatics
- Pulmonary capillary congestion
- Interstitial edema
- Compressed bronchial airways from excessive alveolar capillary interstitial fluid
Etiology of Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn
TTN affects 1 to 2 percent of all newborns. Classically, TTN is most often
Read MoreHuman Body Systems: Nerves, Senses, and Coordination
Body Coordination: Nervous System & Senses
Interaction and Coordination
The nervous system interacts with both internal and external environments, enabling the body to detect changes and provide appropriate responses.
The Basic Pathway of a Response
- Stimulus: An external or internal change.
- Receptors: Detect the stimulus and convert it into an electrical impulse.
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Processes the impulse.
- Responses:
- Muscle Effector: Leads to a motor response (movement).
- Gland Effector: Leads
Life’s Genesis: Elements, Evolution, and Earth’s Past
The Fundamental Building Blocks of Life
Of the 90 naturally occurring chemical elements, 20 are essential for life. The primary elements that make life possible are Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N). Water (H₂O) and Carbon are particularly crucial, constituting 98% of the body’s mass. Without iron, hemoglobin cannot be produced. A lack of selenium leads to liver failure, and without sulfur, hair and nails would not form properly. Potassium is vital for nerve impulse transmission;
Read MoreReticular Formation, Cerebellum, and Thalamus: Anatomy and Function
Reticular Formation
The reticular formation (FR) is divided into:
- Lateral FR: characterized by small neurons and short axons.
- Medial FR: characterized by large neurons and long axons.
- Middle FR: includes the raphe nuclei, which are serotonergic.
Bulb (Medulla Oblongata)
Key nuclei within the bulb include:
- Parvocellular reticular nucleus
- Nucleus gigantocellularis
- Nucleus magnocellularis
- Raphe nuclei: raphe pallidus, raphe obscurus, raphe magnus
Pons (Bridge)
Key areas within the pons include:
- Lateral FR
- Nucleus
Gene and Chromosome Mutations: Types, Causes, and Repair
Gene Mutations: Definition and Impact
Gene mutations are alterations in the nucleotide sequence of a gene. Thus, they are called mutations.
Types of Gene Mutations
Base Substitution Mutations
These are produced by changing one base for another. These mutations alter a single gene triplet. Sometimes, the new triplet encodes the same amino acid, or a different amino acid that does not alter the protein’s function, meaning the mutation has no harmful consequences. In other cases, the mutation causes an