Molecular Genetics: Key Concepts and Mutation Effects
Molecular Genetics Fundamentals
Cellular Transformation and Key Enzymes
Transformation studies demonstrate the ability to transition from non-disease-causing to disease-causing states, often involving the uptake of genetic material.
Enzyme Definitions
- Enzyme that degrades DNA: DNase
- Enzyme that degrades protein: Protease
- Enzyme that degrades RNA: RNase
Cell Types and Ploidy
- Somatic Cells: Non-reproductive cells (diploid).
- Gametes: Reproductive cells (haploid), containing half the amount of DNA as somatic
Plant Nutrition Mechanisms: Photosynthesis and Nutrient Uptake
Core Functions of Organic Molecules
Plants require organic molecules for two primary functions:
- To obtain the energy required for vital functions.
- To increase size, develop, and form new organs.
Autotrophic Organisms
In addition to plants, other organisms are autotrophs, including many protists, Monera, and algae.
Phases of Plant Nutrition
Plant nutrition involves two main parts:
- Organic Synthesis (Photosynthesis): The process by which light energy is transformed into chemical energy, converting inorganic
How Chinook Salmon Gills Achieve 90% Oxygen Extraction
Chinook Salmon Respiration: Challenges and Adaptations
The Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), a member of the class Actinopterygii (ray-finned bony fishes), is an anadromous species native to the cold rivers and coastal waters of the North Pacific Ocean. This species begins life in freshwater streams, migrates to marine environments for adult life, and later returns to freshwater to spawn. Living in an aquatic environment poses considerable physiological challenges for gas exchange, primarily
Read MoreFundamentals of Ecology: Ecosystems and Environmental Factors
Ecological Pyramids: Structure and Representation
The ecological pyramid is a form of representation used to show how various characteristics of trophic levels, such as production or biomass, change when moving from one level to another.
Each trophic level is represented by a rectangle. The rectangle forming the base of the pyramid represents the producers (manufacturers), whose resources are available to other trophic levels. The length of the base of each rectangle is proportional to the measured
Read MoreLactic Acid Bacteria: Biochemistry, Pathways, and Food Preservation
Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)
Gram-positive, non-motile, and non-spore forming bacteria that are strict fermenters.
They are catalase and oxidase negative and cannot synthesize cytochromes.
LAB can be either homofermentative or heterofermentative. The type of fermentation is determined by the enzymes produced by the organism.
Homofermentative: Converts glucose into two lactic acid molecules, with 85–95% of the glucose carbon ending up as lactate. This pathway uses the glycolytic (Embden-Meyerhof) pathway.
Cell Organelles: Structure, Function, and Energy Production
Essential Cellular Organelles: Structure and Function
Membrane-Bound Organelles
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened sacs (cisternae) and independent vesicles surrounded by a membrane and assembled in groups called dictyosomes. Its function is the secretion of substances taken from the endoplasmic reticulum and destined for lysosomes.
Lysosomes
Lysosome Structure and Role: These are spherical vesicles surrounded by a membrane, which contain hydrolytic enzymes. They are responsible
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