Understanding the Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen: Anatomy and Function

The Liver: Anatomy and Function

The liver is a vital organ located primarily in the right upper quadrant and epigastrium, extending into the left upper quadrant. Weighing approximately 1.5 kilograms, it features a superior diaphragmatic surface that conforms to the diaphragm and an inferior visceral surface in contact with other abdominal organs.

The upper liver is divided into right and left lobes by the falciform ligament, which attaches it to the diaphragm. On the liver’s inferior surface, grooves

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Antibodies, Viruses, and Prions: An Immunology Primer

Antibodies: Structure and Function

Antibodies are glycoproteins found in a soluble form in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates. They act as receptors on B lymphocytes and are employed by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign materials. Each antibody consists of basic structural units with two large heavy chains and two light chains.

Antibodies are synthesized by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte. Although the general structure of antibodies is very similar, a

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Ecology: Population Regulation, Niches, and Interactions

  • r-selection is selection for life history traits that maximize reproductive success at low density.
  • In density-independent population regulation, birth rate and death rate do not change with population density.
    • Environmental factors that occur randomly, regardless of population size.
  • In density-dependent population regulation, birth rates fall and death rates increase with rising population density.
    • Population density is maintained at or near carrying capacity (K).
  • Density-independent factors are
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Understanding Common Non-Infectious Diseases

Key Non-Infectious Diseases

Cancer

Cancer results from an abnormal proliferation of cells caused by DNA modifications. For instance, the p53 protein normally halts cell division, allowing time for DNA repair or triggering apoptosis (programmed cell death) if damage is irreparable. When this process fails, cells with damaged DNA can survive and multiply uncontrollably, forming tumors. These tumors can grow, press on organs, and spread (metastasize) through blood or lymph to other parts of the body.

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Human Sensory Receptors: Eye and Ear Anatomy and Function

Eye Receptors: The Sense of Sight

Most of the information that reaches your brain comes through your eyes. Of all the senses, sight is the most complex and often dominates the others.

Structure of the Eye

The eyes are the sensory organs where the receptors for light are located. They are fragile and protected by the bones of the skull, housed inside the orbits. Externally, the eyelids, eyelashes, and tears protect and clean the eyes, while eyebrows help keep sweat out.

  • Outer Layer: This consists of
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Lipids and Proteins: Structure, Types, and Functions

Lipids: Structure and Functions

Waxes

Waxes result from the esterification of a long-chain alcohol with a fatty acid. They primarily function to prevent dehydration.

Esterification Reaction Example:
CH3-(CH2)n-CH2OH + HOOC-(CH2)m-CH3 → CH3-(CH2)n-CH2-OOC-(CH2)m-CH3 (Wax) + H2O

An example is beeswax.

Unsaponifiable Lipids

These lipids cannot be hydrolyzed by saponification.

Steroids

Steroids are lipids derived from the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene structure. Their structure consists of four fused carbon

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