Industrial Fermentation: Bioreactors and Processing
Core Structural Features
- Vessel Material: Constructed from 316L Stainless Steel for internal components to prevent corrosion and toxic heavy metal leaching, while ensuring the vessel can withstand intense steam sterilization pressures (Durand & Chereau, 1987; Iagati, 2014).
- Aspect Ratio: Typically cylindrical with a hemispherical top and bottom, with a height-to-diameter ratio (H:D) usually ranging between 2:1 and 6:1 to optimize gas bubble ascent times (Iagati, 2014).
- Baffles: Flat vertical strips
Pharmacology: Metabolism, SAR, and Drug Classification
Drug Metabolism
Drug metabolism is a biochemical process that converts drugs into metabolites by altering their solubility or toxicity. This biotransformation aims to convert lipid-soluble drugs into water-soluble, polar metabolites to avoid reabsorption in renal tubules and facilitate excretion. While most drugs are lipid-soluble and undergo metabolism, some hydrophilic drugs are excreted unchanged.
Metabolic Phases
- Phase 1: Oxidation, hydrolysis, and reduction reactions increase drug polarity.
- Phase
Molecular Biology Techniques: Blotting, Hybridoma, and Fermentation
Immunoblotting
Viral antigens are detected with a polyclonal or a monoclonal antibody (MAb) on nitrocellulose paper.
- After incubation, the protein bands (immune complexes) are visualized with peroxidase-conjugated protein and a color reagent.
- A color develops in the bands where the antibody binds to the antigen.
- Immunoblotting is an assay mixture of these two techniques.
Western Blotting
Western blotting is based on the principles of immunochromatography where proteins are separated in polyacrylamide
Read MoreMolecular Genetics and Systems Biology: Key Mechanisms
1. Molecular Mechanisms of Complex Genetic Diseases
Complex genetic diseases are multifactorial and result from the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors. Key mechanisms include:
- Polygenic inheritance: Many genes contributing small effects.
- Genetic variants: SNPs and copy number variations altering gene function.
- Epistasis: Gene–gene interactions.
- Gene–environment interactions: Influence of diet or toxins.
- Epigenetic modifications: DNA methylation and histone changes regulating expression
Recombinant DNA Technology in Vaccine and Insulin Production
Recombinant DNA Technology in Vaccine Manufacture
Steps for Recombinant DNA Preparation
1. Isolation of Genetic Material or DNA
Genetic material is present inside the cells. It has to be obtained in pure form without even the attached histones and other proteins. To get the desired DNA, cells are treated with lysozyme (for bacteria), cellulase and pectinase (for plant cells), and chitinase (for fungal cells).
- The treated cells are homogenized and centrifuged to rupture the cells as well as nuclear envelopes.
DNA Restriction Digestion and Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
Understanding Restriction Enzymes
Restriction enzymes (RE), or restriction endonucleases, act as molecular scissors by cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences. These enzymes are isolated from various cellular strains and typically recognize palindromic sequences of 4 to 6 base pairs. Once the target site is located, the enzyme cleaves both strands of the DNA double helix, resulting in restriction fragments.
Common Restriction Enzymes
Every enzyme has unique target sites. For example, Lambda DNA
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