Principles of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Absorption
1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) Drug Absorption
Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) drug absorption relies on several physiological mechanisms. Key factors like molecular size, lipid solubility, gastrointestinal pH, and gastric emptying time heavily influence how quickly and completely a medication enters the systemic circulation.
Mechanisms of Drug Transport
Drugs traverse the gastrointestinal membrane primarily through the following pathways:
- Passive Diffusion: The most common mechanism. Drugs move naturally
Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics Essential Definitions
Drug Disposition and Multi-Dose Administration
Drug Disposition is defined as the processes that tend to lower the plasma concentration of a drug; it is the sum of metabolism and excretion.
Multiple Dose Administration refers to the administration of successive dosages of a drug in which the drug is administered frequently with a constant dose interval.
Kidney Function Tests and Total Body Clearance
What are the tests for kidney function?
The kidney function tests include approximately 11 tests to assess
Read MorePharmacokinetics, Biotransformation, and Drug Elimination
Biotransformation (Drug Metabolism)
Biotransformation is the process by which a drug is chemically altered in the body. It changes active drugs into less active or inactive compounds (to be excreted) or transforms inactive “prodrugs” into active forms.
Phase I Reactions (Non-Synthetic)
This phase alters the drug’s chemical structure by adding or exposing a functional group.
- Reactions: Oxidation (adding oxygen or removing hydrogen, often via Cytochrome P450 enzymes), Reduction, and Hydrolysis.
Phase II
Read MorePharmacology of Anti-Infective and Immunomodulatory Agents
1. Malaria: Life Cycle and Anti-Malarial Pharmacology
Life Cycle of the Malarial Parasite (Plasmodium)
- Infection: Female Anopheles mosquito injects sporozoites into the host during a blood meal.
- Liver Stage (Exo-erythrocytic): Sporozoites travel to the liver, invading hepatocytes to mature and multiply into merozoites. In P. vivax and P. ovale, some remain dormant as hypnozoites.
- Blood Stage (Erythrocytic): Merozoites are released into the bloodstream, invading erythrocytes (RBCs). They feed on hemoglobin,
Medicinal Chemistry: Drug Synthesis and Pharmacological Action
Chloroquine Phosphate
Chloroquine phosphate is a synthetic 4-aminoquinoline derivative. Its chemical structure consists of a quinoline ring with a chlorine atom at position 7 and an aliphatic diamine chain at position 4. Clinically, it is used for the prevention and treatment of susceptible malaria infections (caused by Plasmodium vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale, and P. falciparum) and for the treatment of extraintestinal amebiasis. It is also employed as a second-line, disease-modifying antirheumatic
Read MoreIndustrial Fermentation: Bioreactors and Processing
Core Structural Features
- Vessel Material: Constructed from 316L Stainless Steel for internal components to prevent corrosion and toxic heavy metal leaching, while ensuring the vessel can withstand intense steam sterilization pressures (Durand & Chereau, 1987; Iagati, 2014).
- Aspect Ratio: Typically cylindrical with a hemispherical top and bottom, with a height-to-diameter ratio (H:D) usually ranging between 2:1 and 6:1 to optimize gas bubble ascent times (Iagati, 2014).
- Baffles: Flat vertical strips