Understanding Electrostatics: Principles and Applications

Electrostatics

Early Observations

Thales observed that rubbing amber with cat fur attracted feathers. Gilbert manufactured the versorium.

Types of Electricity

Charles du Fay discovered that rubbing glass with silk electrified objects, and similar objects repelled each other. He deduced two types of electricity: resinous and vitreous.

In 1747, Franklin named the charge gained by rubbed bodies as positive and the charge lost as negative. Bodies with the same charge repel, while those with different charges

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Copper Extraction: A Comprehensive Process Analysis

Copper Extraction Process

Copper is mainly extracted from its sulphide ores. The different steps involved in the extraction of copper from copper pyrites ore (CuFeS2) are:

1) Crushing and Pulverization

The sulphide ore is crushed in a big jaw crusher and pulverized in a ball mill.

2) Concentration

The powdered ore is concentrated by the froth flotation process. In this process, the powdered ore is mixed with water containing a little pine oil in a big tank and agitated by blowing air. The sulphide ore

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Ions, Bonds, and Macromolecules: Chemistry Essentials

(a) Ions and Ionic Bonds

Ion: An ion is a charged atom (i.e., the number of protons does not equal the number of electrons). Ions form by losing an electron (oxidation), which increases the charge by 1, or by gaining one (reduction), which decreases the charge by 1. Remember OIL RIG: oxidation is loss, reduction is gain. A positively charged atom is called a cation, and it is usually a metal. A negatively charged atom is called an anion, and it is a non-metal.

Ionic bond: An ionic bond is the bond

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Radioactive Decay: Alpha, Beta, Electron Capture

Alpha Decay

Radioactive nuclides with a very large atomic number (> 82) often decay with the emission of an alpha particle. By increasing the number of protons, Coulomb repulsion forces exceed the nuclear forces. Thus, the unstable nucleus emits a particle composed of two protons and two neutrons. The atomic number (Z = number of protons) decreases by two, and the mass number decreases by four. Q is the energy released in the process, the decay energy. Q is equivalent to the difference in mass

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Understanding Laws, States of Matter, and Chemical Reactions

A law is a brief statement of a general nature about regularities in nature observed experimentally. Boyle’s Law states that for a mass of gas at constant temperature, the product of the gas pressure exerted by the volume it occupies is constant.

States of Matter

  • Gaseous State: It has no fixed shape or volume, is compressible, and flows easily.
  • Liquid State: It adapts to the container, is difficult to compress, and flows.
  • Solid State: It has its own rigid shape and volume and is hardly compressible.
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Understanding Physics and Chemistry: Basic Principles

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Physics and Chemistry: Basic Concepts

Physics

Part of the science of physical phenomena.

  • Phenomenon: Any event under study.
  • Physical Phenomena: Processes that do not alter the nature of the substances involved.

Chemistry

Part of the science of chemical phenomena.

  • Chemical Phenomena: Processes that change the nature of the substances involved.

The Scientific Method

The scientific method consists of the following steps:

  1. Observation: Noting fixed natural events in order to reproduce them in the laboratory.
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