Atomic Theory and Chemical Bonds: A Comprehensive Study
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- The elements that constitute matter are composed of indivisible and indestructible particles called atoms.
- Atoms of a particular element are equal in mass and properties.
- Atoms of different elements differ in mass and properties.
- Compounds are formed by the union of atoms of the corresponding elements in constant and simple fractions. The set of atoms that constitute a compound gives this compound some characteristic properties, and the atomic mass of the combination
Reaction Rates: Understanding Chemical Kinetics
Concept of Speed in Chemical Reactions
The reaction rate indicates the rate at which reactants are transformed into products. The measured reaction rate is the decreased concentration of a reagent or the increased concentration of a product. The speed can be expressed as the disappearance of a reactant or the appearance of a product and can be categorized as average speed and instantaneous velocity.
Average Speed
Speed is not constant but varies depending on the time interval.
Instantaneous Speed
The
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Ionization Enthalpy
The amount of energy required to remove electrons one by one is known as the enthalpy of ionization. The energy required to remove the last electron is called the first ionization enthalpy, and to remove the second last electron is called the second ionization energy, and so forth.
Electron Configuration
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
Mass and Atomic Numbers
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Atomic Number = Number
Read MoreUnderstanding Motor Oil Types, Additives, and Their Functions
Oils & Additives
Types of Motor Oil
- Mineral Oil: Obtained from the distillation of crude oil through various refining processes.
- Semi-Synthetic Oil: A mixture of mineral and synthetic oils, typically composed of 70-80% mineral oil and 20-30% synthetic oil.
- Synthetic Oil: Created through chemical reactions, including esters and synthesized hydrocarbons, specifically polyalphaolefins.
Additives in Motor Oil
Additives constitute approximately 15-25% of motor oil and enhance its properties.
Additives that
Read MoreKeynesian Model, Money Supply, Production, and External Sector
Keynesian Model
Real or Aggregate Demand (DA)
- y = c + z
- c = a + by
- z = go + g1i
- y = (a + go + g1i) / (1 – b) = y = f(i)
Money Supply (S. Moneta)
- Md = L(l, y)
- Ms = (1/p) * h(i)
- L(l, y) = (1/p) * h(i)
Production (S. Producc)
- y = F(N)
- Pman = W
- Yo = F(No)
- Ns = f(w)
External Sector Model (S. Exterior)
- Y = C + I + G + X – M
- y = Co + bY + Io + Go + Xo – Mo + My
- y(1 – b – m) = Co + Io + Go + Xo – Mo
- y = (Co + Io + Go + Xo – Mo) / (1 – b – m)
Chemical Reactions: Energy, Enthalpy, and Equilibrium
The Power of Chemical Reactions: Energy and Chemical Balance
6.1 Energy in Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions are always accompanied by an exchange of energy. This can be either a release or absorption of energy because the energy that the reactants have is different from the energy that the products possess. A chemical reaction involves the breaking of bonds in reactants and the formation of new bonds in products. Breaking bonds requires energy, while the formation of bonds normally entails a
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