Chemical Bonds: Polarity, Metallic & Intermolecular Forces

Polar Covalent Bonds and Polarity

Polarization of Bonds: A polar bond forms when two atoms with different electronegativity come together. This results in partial charges appearing at the ends of the bond. A bond is more polarized the greater the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms. This difference indicates the percentage of ionic character in the covalent bond.

Polar Molecules

A diatomic molecule is polar if its bond is polarized. For a polyatomic molecule to have a molecular dipole

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Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding, and Solutions

Elements and Atoms

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.

An atom is the smallest part of an element that has all the properties of that element.

Atomic Structure

Atoms have a very dense center called the nucleus. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.

  • Protons are positively charged (+).
  • Neutrons are neutral (no charge).
  • Electrons are negatively charged (-).

You can tell how many protons an atom has by looking at the periodic table (the atomic number

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Understanding Metallurgy: Processes, Techniques, and Applications

Metallurgy: An Overview

Metallurgy is the science and technology of metals. Metals are electropositive, meaning they tend to lose electrons. They conduct heat and electricity, and possess a solid-state crystal structure where atoms are arranged in a regular network. Metals are generally isotropic, exhibiting identical properties in all directions.

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with a consistent composition within a defined range. An ore is a mineral deposit with a concentration of a

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Silver Cation: Properties, Reactions, Health and Environmental Effects

Silver (Ag) is a white metal, malleable and ductile. It is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids but dissolves readily in nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Silver is almost always monovalent in its compounds, but divalent oxides, sulfur fluoride, and some coordination compounds containing divalent and trivalent silver are known. Although silver does not oxidize when heated, it can be oxidized chemically or electrolytically to form silver oxide or peroxide, a powerful oxidizing

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Understanding Atoms, Elements, and Chemical Bonds

The Atom: Building Block of Matter

The atom is the fundamental unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Subatomic Particles

  • Electron: Mass approximately 10-31 kg. Discovered by J.J. Thomson.
  • Proton: Located in the nucleus, with a mass approximately 1840 x 10-31 kg. Discovered by Rutherford in 1919.
  • Neutron: Located in the nucleus, with a mass approximately 1840 x 10-31 kg. Discovered by Chadwick in 1932.

Atomic Models

  • Thomson Model: Proposed in 1904, suggesting the atom consists
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Industrial Chemical Processes and Environmental Technologies

Industrial Processes and Sustainable Technologies

Pesticide Active Ingredient Screening Evolution

Before the 1980s, screening for active ingredients in the pesticide industry involved expensive and time-consuming greenhouse tests requiring large product amounts. However, with the advent of molecular biology in the 1980s and 1990s, these methods declined, replaced by receptor-inhibitor models and pre-designed compounds. Since 1990, ‘sophisticated screening’ methods have become prevalent. These techniques

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