Concise Chemistry: Atomic Mass, Radiation, Water & Polymers

Atomic Structure and Radiation

  • The relative atomic mass, Ar, or atomic mass, is the mass of an atom measured by comparison with the carbon atom -12.
  • Alpha Particles: consist of two protons and two neutrons, i.e., are nuclei of helium atoms. When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle, it is transformed into another with mass number A-4 and atomic number Z-2.
  • Beta particles: are very fast electrons. They result from the disintegration of neutrons into a proton and an electron. When emitted, the
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States of Matter: Properties, Kinetic Theory, and Elements

States of Matter: Properties and Characteristics

Solids

Solids have a definite mass, shape, and volume. They are generally difficult to compress, and their density is close to that of liquids. Key properties include elasticity, fragility, and hardness.

Liquids

Liquids have a definite mass and volume but take the shape of their container. They are difficult to compress and expand when heated. Important properties include surface tension, capillarity, and viscosity.

Gases

Gases have a definite mass but

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Nitrates and Carbonates: Properties, Formation, and Environmental Impact

Nitrates: Properties and Formation

Nitrates: Nitrates are salts derived from nitric acid. They are formed by the junction of the nitrate anion (NO3) with a metal. They are less abundant than carbonates and are characterized by their high solubility and a structure similar to carbonates. Nitrates are an essential part of fertilizers. Plants convert them back into organic nitrogen compounds such as amino acids.

Inorganic nitrates are formed in nature by the decomposition of nitrogenous compounds such

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Carbohydrate Reactions: Qualitative Tests

1. Molisch Test

Concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) dehydrates monosaccharides, forming furfural (from pentoses) or 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (from hexoses). These aldehydes condense with α-naphthol to produce a purple ring. This test is positive for all free or combined carbohydrates (mono-, oligo-, and polysaccharides).

Reaction: Carbohydrate + α-naphthol + H2SO4 → Purple product (Molisch)

Reagents:

  • Concentrated sulfuric acid
  • Molisch reagent: 5g α-naphthol in 100mL ethanol

Procedure:

  • Tube A: 2mL of
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Chemistry Principles: Matter, Mixtures, and Laws

Principles of Chemistry

Matter and Chemistry

Mass is the fundamental characteristic of matter.

Chemistry is for studying the nature of matter and changes that affect nature.

Physical changes do not alter the nature of substances; chemical changes do.

Pure Substance

A pure substance has a definite, constant composition, specific physical and chemical characteristics, and cannot be separated into other substances by physical methods.

Mixture

A mixture has variable composition and properties related to its

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Key Concepts in Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry

  • Calorie: A unit of power based on the specific heat of water, used to express the energy value of food.
  • State Function: A macroscopic physical quantity that characterizes the state of a system in equilibrium.
  • Internal Energy: The total change in internal energy equals the sum of the energy supplied to the system as heat and work.
  • Heat of Reaction: The heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction at constant pressure.
  • Heat: The amount of energy a thermodynamic system can exchange with its environment.
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