Understanding Acids, Bases, and Chemical Reactions: A Comprehensive Guide
Chemical Reactions and Electrochemistry
Redox Reactions
Zn + CuSO4 > Cu + ZnSO4 / Cu2+ + Zn > Cu + Zn2+ (Blue to colorless)
Electrolysis of Water
Passing a direct current through water containing an electrolyte (e.g., H2SO4) results in the formation of oxygen at the anode (positive electrode) and hydrogen at the cathode (negative electrode).
Anode: 2H2O > O2 + 4H+ + 4e- (oxidation)
Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- > H2 (reduction)
Overall: 2H2O > O2 + 2H2
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells directly convert chemical
Read MorePeriodicity and Group Trends
Positive and Negative Ions
Positive ions are smaller as they lose electrons, forming a cation and losing the outer shell with the largest radius. Negative ions are bigger as they gain an electron, forming an anion with an increase in electron-electron repulsion, causing an expansion of the charge cloud.
Metals
Metals react by losing electrons. Metallic character increases down Group 1 and decreases across Period 2.
Carbon and Lead
Carbon in diamond forms a giant covalent structure where each carbon atom
Read MoreThe Recipe of Life: Exploring the Origins and Evolution of Living Organisms
The Recipe of Life
There are 90 natural chemical elements, but only about 20 are essential for life. These elements are found in both the Earth’s crust and the human body. Living matter consists primarily of hydrogen (98%), oxygen, and carbon.
Essential Elements for Life
Water
Water is a vital solvent that facilitates chemical reactions and ensures their speed is sufficiently high.
Carbon
Carbon’s oxidation number of IV allows it to form four bonds, enabling the creation of long chains and thousands of
Read MoreChemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces
Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds involve the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms, creating two oppositely charged ions. Metals lose electrons to become positively charged cations, while nonmetals gain electrons to become negatively charged anions.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds form between atoms with similar electronegativities (affinity for electrons). Atoms share electrons to achieve a stable octet configuration.
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
These bonds occur between identical atoms
Read MoreFood Preservation Methods & Common Preservatives
Preservatives
Food spoilage is caused by bacteria, yeast, and mold, leading to economic losses for manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. Some microorganisms produce harmful toxins, such as botulinum toxin (found in improperly sterilized canned goods) and aflatoxins (produced by certain molds), which are highly toxic and carcinogenic.
Methods of Food Preservation
There are two main approaches to preventing food spoilage:
- Physical methods: These include irradiation, heating, dehydration, and freezing
Pharmaceutical Equipment and Processes
Theory of filtration
The flow of any liquid through a filter follows a basic rule that govern the flow of any liquid through a medium. The rate of flow may be expressed in volume/time. The theory of filtration gives an idea about the factors that affect the rate of filtration through a filtering medium.
The scientist which gives the theory of filtration is darcy and this is also known as darcy’s law. They give an equation about the theory of filtration.
V=KAΔP/ηtWhere v is the viscosity, K =
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