Pharmaceutical Equipment and Processes
Theory of filtration
The flow of any liquid through a filter follows a basic rule that govern the flow of any liquid through a medium. The rate of flow may be expressed in volume/time. The theory of filtration gives an idea about the factors that affect the rate of filtration through a filtering medium.
The scientist which gives the theory of filtration is darcy and this is also known as darcy’s law. They give an equation about the theory of filtration.
V=KAΔP/ηtWhere v is the viscosity, K =
Read MoreColor Separation Techniques in Printing
UNIT 13: THEORY OF REFLECTION
The pigmented color image is expressed in our eyes and by recruitment teams based on the colored light that is able to reflect, in the case of opaque media (pigmented areas), or transmitted in the case of transparent filters.
Color vision is always made by additive synthesis, so we must turn to their principles. Any pigmented surface will tend to absorb light that reaches those who do not have RGB components and reflect the existing ones, which, being appreciated by
Metallurgy and Non-Metals: Processes and Properties
Metallurgical Processes
Hydrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy utilizes aqueous solutions to extract metals from ores. It involves leaching the ore with a solvent, followed by separation and purification steps to isolate the desired metal. This method is commonly used for extracting copper, nickel, and gold.
Oxidative Refining
Oxidative refining refines metals through oxidation reactions, removing impurities or transforming the metal into a more desirable form. An example is the refining of impure copper through
Read MoreAtomic Theory and Subatomic Particles: Key Concepts Explained
Key Concepts in Atomic Theory
Which of the following was one of Dalton’s improvements over Democritus’s ideas?
Atoms retain their identity in a chemical reaction.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Atoms of the same element are always identical.
Which discovery did J. J. Thomson make that improved upon Dalton’s atomic theory?
Atoms contain tiny, negatively charged electrons
Which of the following was originally a tenet of Dalton’s atomic theory, but had to be revised about a century ago?
Atoms are tiny indivisible
Read MorePharmaceutical Emulsions: Types, Preparation, and Stability
Pharmaceutical Emulsions
Emulsions are dispersion systems consisting of at least two immiscible fluids, or semi-solid easy-melting substances, one of which is dispersed throughout the other in the form of fine droplets. The diameter of these droplets is usually bigger than 0.5 µm. Pharmaceutical emulsions usually consist of water and oil.
Types of Emulsions
Two main basic types of emulsion can exist: oil-in-water (o/w) and water-in-oil (w/o), depending upon whether the continuous (outer) phase is
Macromolecules: A Comprehensive Guide to Polymers
Macromolecules
Contents
Polymers, also known as macromolecules, are large molecules with high molecular masses, reaching millions of atomic mass units (amu). They are formed by the repetition of smaller units called monomers, linked together by covalent bonds.
Polymer chains interact with each other through van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, or hydrophobic interactions.
Classification of Polymers
Polymers can be classified based on several criteria:
Origin
- Natural polymers: Rubber, polysaccharides