Chemical Bonds: Types, Properties, and Theories
Chemical Bonds
Chemical Bond: The noble gases and metal fumes are composed of isolated atoms. Atoms can be closely allied and may be atoms of the same element or belong to different elements. A chemical bond is any mechanism of ligation or chemical bonding between atoms. These chemical bonds between atoms are formed and broken in chemical reactions. The formation of bonds results from a favorable energy balance; the bonded atoms form a system with less energy (more stable) than separated atoms.
Atoms
Read MoreCycloalkanes, Arenes, and PAHs: Reactions, Synthesis, and Uses
Cycloalkanes
What are Cycloalkanes?
Cycloalkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing a ring of carbon atoms with the general formula CnH2n.
Methods of Preparation (Synthesis Reactions)
- Cyclization of Alkenes: Alkenes can undergo cyclization reactions to form cycloalkanes.
Example: Cyclohexane synthesis from hexene
n-Hexene → Cyclohexane - Cyclization of Alkynes: Alkynes can undergo cyclization reactions to form cycloalkanes.
Example: Cyclohexane synthesis from hexyne
Hexyne → Cyclohexane - Friedel-Crafts
Introduction to Organic Chemistry: Structures, Functional Groups, and Isomers
Basic Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon atoms are unique in their ability to form very stable chains and rings. These structures can combine with other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus.
Understanding organic chemistry is essential to understanding the molecular basis of the chemistry of life: Biochemistry.
General
The main differences between organic and inorganic compounds are due to changes in the composition, the type of
Read MoreIntroduction to Biological Macromolecules and Chemical Reactions
Biological Macromolecules
Monomers and Polymers
Biological macromolecules are large molecules that are essential for life. They are typically polymers, which are made up of repeating units called monomers. The number of monomers in a polymer determines its classification:
- Monomer: 1 part
- Dimer: 2 parts
- Trimer: 3 parts
- Oligomer: 4-10 parts
- Polymer: More than 10 parts
Examples of Biological Macromolecules
| Category | Monomer | Dimer | Polymer |
|---|---|---|---|
| Proteins | Amino Acids | Dipeptide | Polypeptide (Protein) |
| Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Disaccharides | Polysaccharide |
Industrial Applications of Nitric Acid
From the Standpoint of Industrial Life
Nitric acid (HNO3) is one of the most important acids in industrial processes. Here’s how HNO3 is used in various industries:
- Fertilizer Industry: Used in the production of fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate.
- Explosives: A key component in the manufacturing of explosives like nitroglycerin and TNT (Trinitrotoluene).
- Metallurgy and Refining: Utilized due to its reactivity with most metals.
- Chemical Synthesis: Employed in various chemical
Organic Chemistry: Exploring Hydrocarbons, Alcohols, and More
Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Alkanes, also called paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons composed of carbon and hydrogen. They are saturated because they contain only single bonds. Saturated hydrocarbons may be linear or branched.
Alkenes and Alkynes
Alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons containing double (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes). Ethylene (ethene) is used as feedstock for polyethylene and in fruit ripening. Beta-carotene gives color to various plants and is a source of vitamin A. Acetylene (ethyne)
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