Genetics, Thermodynamics, and Chemical Reactions Explained

Genetics and Heredity

Genotype: The complete set of genes an individual inherits from their parents.

Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Alleles and Inheritance

Homozygous: An individual possessing two identical alleles for a specific trait.

Heterozygous: An individual possessing two different alleles for a specific trait.

Gene: A unit of heredity containing genetic information, located on chromosomes in a linear

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Chemical Kinetics, Surface Phenomena, and Material Properties

Pseudo First Order Reactions

The order of a reaction is sometimes altered by conditions. Consider a chemical reaction between two substances when one reactant is present in large excess. For example, during the hydrolysis of 0.01 mol of ethyl acetate with 10 mol of water, the amounts of the various constituents at the beginning (t = 0) and completion (t) illustrate this phenomenon, known as a pseudo-first-order reaction.

Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions

Although the Arrhenius equation is applicable

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Electrolysis Fundamentals: Product Prediction and Applications

Electricity and Chemistry: Electrolysis Explained

Electrolysis is a method used to decompose chemical compounds using electricity. It involves two electrodes:

  • Cathode: The negative electrode where reduction occurs. Generally, metals or hydrogen are formed here. (Remember: CATions are positive and go to the CAThode).
  • Anode: The positive electrode where oxidation occurs. Typically, non-metals (except hydrogen) are formed here. (Remember: ANions are negative and go to the ANode).

Predicting Electrolysis

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Chemical Formulas: Hydrides, Oxides, and Salts

Formulas:

Hydrazide: HF – hydrofluoric acid, fluoride; HCl – hydrochloric acid, chloride, etc.

Hydrides (Non-Metallic):

  • NH3 – Ammonia
  • PH3 – Phosphine
  • AsH3 – Arsine
  • SbH3 – Stibnite
  • CH4 – Methane
  • SiH4 – Silane

Hydrides (Metallic):

  • FeH2 – Ferrous Hydride, Fe(II) Hydride
  • AlH3 – Aluminum Trihydride, Al Hydride

Oxides (Metallic):

  • Na2O – Sodium Oxide
  • NiO – Nickel Monoxide, Ni(II) Oxide

Oxides (Non-Metallic): (CN to determine their oxidation numbers: Cl, Br, I -> 1, 3, 5, 7)

  • ClO2 – Hypochlorous Anhydride, Cl(I) Oxide
  • S2O2
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Limestone, Metal Extraction & Uses: A Chemistry Exploration

Limestone and Its Uses

Limestone is made of calcium carbonate. Limestone is widely used in the building industry. The calcium carbonate in limestone breaks down when heated strongly to make calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The reaction is called thermal decomposition.

Reactions of Carbonates

Carbonates react with dilute acid to form a salt, water, and carbon dioxide. Limewater turns cloudy in the test for carbon dioxide gas. A precipitate of insoluble calcium carbonate causes the cloudiness. Metal

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Thermodynamic Processes and Refrigeration Cycle Components

Item 5: Thermodynamic Processes

  • Isothermal Process: The substance changes state without changing its thermodynamic temperature.
  • Isobaric Process: The substance changes state without changing its pressure.
  • Isochoric Process: The substance changes state without changing its specific volume.
  • Isenthalpic Process: The substance changes state without changing its heat (enthalpy).
  • Isentropic Process: The substance changes state without changing its entropy.
  • Adiabatic Process: A process in which no heat transfer
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