Understanding Electrostatics: Principles, Models, and Applications
Electrostatics: An Introduction
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest. This field explores the phenomena associated with stationary electric charges and their interactions.
Early Discoveries
The history of electrostatics dates back to ancient times:
- Thales of Miletus: Observed that rubbing amber with cat fur attracted feathers.
- William Gilbert: Manufactured the versorium, a device to detect electric charge.
- Charles du Fay: Noted that rubbing glass with silk electrified objects, leading
Understanding Chemical Bonds: Covalent, Ionic, and Metallic
Covalent bonds: A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electron pairs, allowing the atoms to achieve an external configuration that satisfies the “Octet Rule”: 8 (eight) or 2 (two) electrons.
Types of Covalent Bonds
Covalent bond – common: A shared electron pair is formed by one electron from each of the atoms involved. This bond can occur between two similar atoms, resulting in a nonpolar covalent bond, or between different atoms, resulting in a polar covalent bond.
- Nonpolar Covalent Bond:
Energy, Thermodynamics, and Thermochemistry Concepts
Energy, Thermodynamics, and Thermochemistry
Energy: The ability of a body or system to produce work or heat transfer. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transformed.
Chemical Energy: The energy due to associations between atoms, ions, and molecules that make up each substance. It accumulates in the chemical bonds and joints caused by intermolecular forces.
Work: A mechanism of energy transfer between bodies based on the use of force.
Heat: Thermal energy is transferred naturally or spontaneously
Read MoreAtomic Structure and Chemical Bonds: A Deep Dive
Atomic Structure
- Electron: A very light particle with a negative charge, moving complexly around the nucleus.
- Proton: A particle with a positive charge, equal in magnitude to that of the electron. It is found in the atomic nucleus, and its mass is much higher than that of the electron.
- Neutron: An electrically neutral particle with a mass similar to that of the proton. It is also found inside the atomic nucleus.
Key Concepts in Atomic Structure
- Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons an atom has. Since
Understanding Chemical Bonds: Types, Properties, and Examples
Understanding Chemical Bonds
Link: Union of two or more atoms to form larger entities such as molecules or elements.
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bond: Union between ions of different signs.
- Occurs when the electronegativity difference is greater than 1.7.
- Typically between a metal and a nonmetal.
- Example: Group IIA + O
Covalent Bond: Forms when the electronegativity difference is not sufficient to transfer electrons from atoms. Atoms share one or more pairs of electrons in an orbital.
Metallic Bond: A
Read MoreWater Treatment Technologies: Membrane Separation, Chlorination, and Activated Sludge
Water Treatment Technologies
Membrane Separation
Membrane separation techniques, such as electrodialysis reversal (EDAR), are used to remove dissolved matter from water, achieving high levels of quality. However, these methods can be expensive, involving semipermeable membranes and dialysis.
Ultrafiltration, a process employing semipermeable membranes, separates contaminants from water under a pressure gradient. It is suitable for macromolecules and industrial effluent treatment.
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
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