Mediterranean Agriculture: Landscape, Regional Varieties, and Challenges
Mediterranean Agricultural Landscape
The Mediterranean agricultural landscape spans the Mediterranean coast, including the Iberian littoral, Balearic Islands, and the Guadalquivir Valley. It thrives in a Mediterranean climate, with variants like pure and coastal steppes, experiencing rainfall between 250 and 800 l/m2, hot summers, and mild winters.
The terrain varies, being relatively flat in coastal plains and lowlands (Guadalquivir Valley) and semi-mountainous inland. This results in diverse natural
Read MoreInca, Aztec, Maya Civilizations and Spanish Conquest
Inca Civilization
The Inca civilization, known as Callasuyo in Chile, was centrally located in Cuzco. They considered themselves part of a new humanity, descendants of the sun.
Peaceful Methods and Administration
The Incas preferred peaceful methods and established indirect governance. They constructed the Inca Trail, which included agricultural centers, dairy farms (settlements), and Pucarás.
Quechua was imposed as the common language. They had a complex administration system using quipu.
Religion
Read MoreIndustrial Revolutions and Economic Sectors
The First Industrial Revolution
In the mid-18th century, some European regions began to move from artisanal to industrial production. Steam-powered machines replaced manual labor, and industrial work moved from workshops to factories.
Factories were initially built next to rivers to utilize the energy of running water. Later, with coal becoming a common energy source, they relocated to cities. The British textile industry was the first to introduce these changes.
The Second Industrial Revolution
The
Read MoreChristopher Columbus: Voyages and Legacy
Christopher Columbus (c. 1451 – May 20, 1506, Valladolid, Spain) was a navigator, cartographer, Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor General of the Indies in the service of the Crown of Castile. He is famous for the so-called discovery of America in 1492.
The Origins of Columbus
The origin of Columbus is debated, and various locations are postulated as his homeland. The thesis that he was born in Genoa is mostly supported, although the existing documentation has gaps and mysteries. Furthermore, his son,
Read MoreSpain’s Railway History: Impact and Development
The Development of Railways in Spain and Their Economic Impact
During these years, twenty railway companies were created. The most important were predominantly French, such as Madrid-Zaragoza-Alicante (MZA), Northern Rail, and Sevilla-Jerez-Cádiz. However, there were also other significant Spanish companies.
Subsidies and state guarantees, along with expectations of large profits, spurred the development. However, starting in 1864, it became clear that earnings expectations were dashed. The agricultural
Read MoreEnvironmental Issues and Policies: EU and Spain
Environmental Problems: A Global Crisis
The 20th-century economic model relied on mass production, consuming vast amounts of energy as if resources were limitless. This has caused major environmental problems:
Air Pollution
- Causes: Emissions from industries, power plants, traffic, and domestic heating.
- Consequences:
- Global warming and climate change (CO2 emissions).
- Thinning of the ozone layer (CFC emissions from refrigerants and aerosols).
- Acid rain (sulfur oxides and nitrogen emissions from central heating