Landforms and Rivers of Europe and Spain
Landforms: Definitions
- RIA: Sea routes into the land.
- CABO (Cape): Relief that goes from the coast into the sea.
- PENINSULA: Land surrounded by water everywhere except for one part.
- ISLA (Island): Portion of land surrounded by water on all sides.
- GOLFO (Gulf): Entry of the sea, rounded. The bay is similar but smaller.
- DORSAL OCEÁNICA (Mid-ocean ridge): Underwater mountain range.
- FOSA MARINA (Marine trench): Great underwater depression.
- LLANURA ABISAL (Abyssal plain): Underwater plain.
- PLATAFORMA CONTINENTAL
Al-Andalus and Christian Kingdoms: Society, Economy, and Politics
Al-Andalus: Social and Economic Organization
The socioeconomic system in Al-Andalus was commercial and urban. The economy was based on agriculture, with advancements in irrigation techniques and the introduction of new crops like rice, sugarcane, and mulberry, which became essential for silk production. Sheep farming was also important. In cities, cottage industries, especially textiles, flourished. Internal trade thrived in the markets, and external trade was based on exports and imports. The financial
Read MoreClass-Based Society: Bourgeoisie, Proletariat, and Workers’ Movements
Class-Based Society
The Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie‘s main activities were commerce, crafts, liberal professions, and government posts. In the Modern Era, the economic significance and power of the bourgeoisie grew. Modern society is still based on the dominance of this “middle-class.”
We can identify three types of bourgeoisie:
- High bourgeoisie: This group stimulated industrialization and enjoyed most of its profits. They were the leaders and pioneers of industrialization.
- Middle bourgeoisie (or Middle
Spanish Agriculture: Modernization and Challenges
Structural Specialization and Production
Modern techniques like mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, transgenic crops, and intensive irrigation have transformed Spanish agriculture. Intensive farming is prominent on the Mediterranean coast, while extensive farming persists inland. This shift has led to increased production and revenue but also environmental concerns like water over-exploitation and land degradation. Subsidized spring sowing and fertilization are common in Castilla La Mancha and
Read MoreDemographic and Economic Crisis in Spain, 14th-15th Centuries
Demographic and Economic Crisis in Spain (14th-15th Centuries)
Since 1270, the first symptoms of a crisis affecting all walks of life appeared. Speculative crops, driven by lords seeking to get rich due to good previous years, prevented the development of subsistence farming, and the most humble began to starve. Climatic deterioration brought crop failures and widespread hunger.
The Black Death (1348)
The crisis worsened in the 14th century, intensified throughout Europe by the Hundred Years’ War (
Read MoreLivestock Production and Forest Resources in Spain
Livestock Production in Spain
Livestock refers to the breeding of animals to produce meat, milk, leather, or to be used for labor.
Traditional vs. Modern Livestock Farming
Traditional livestock ranges from family livestock (small in numbers) to the large herds used for extensive grazing or transhumant farming (relocating herds from one location to another, searching for good pastures). Traditional livestock is not very productive but is often the only source of livelihood or food. Modern livestock
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